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CIVIL AERONAUTICS ADMINISTRATION 

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Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 22 

SEVENTH EDITION, OCTOBER 1943 


































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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

CIVIL AERONAUTICS ADMINISTRATION 

WASHINGTON, D, C. 

U.Si. CwA O-e.YO'nauV'c.s. cx-Ai(ti\\a \^.VTat’vi>o , 

Digest of 

Civil Air Regulations 

for Pilots 


Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 22 
Seventh Edition, October 1943 



UNITED STATES 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON : 1943 


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PREFACE 


The purpose of this publication is to explain to the student pilot in as 
nonlegal phraseology as practicable those provisions of the Civil Air Regulations 
which most directly affect the pilot. Although designed primarily for use as a 
textbook in the CAA War Training Service, this book is valuable to anyone 
preparing for the examination on the Civil Air Regulations required for issuance 
of a pilot’s certificate. 

This digest is based on the regulations in effect on June 1, 1943. Aero¬ 
nautics is a constantly developing science, and new knowledge gained through 
research and experience necessitates frequent revisions and changes in the 
regulations pertaining to it. Such revisions and changes are covered by 
amendments to the regulations which are issued when necessary. Notification 
of amendments to Civil Air Regulations is carried in the monthly Civil Aeko- 
NAUTics Journal, obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents, 
Washington, D. C., on subscription at $0.50 per year. 

Ill 






CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION Page 

The government in civil aviation._ vii 

Methods by which safety is in¬ 
creased_ VIII 

Regulations for safety_ viii 

Index of air regulations_ viii 

Civil Air Regulations_ ix 

Regulations of the Administrator. ix 

Suggestions for study_ x 

Review exercise_ x 

Chapter I.—FLIGHT RULES 

Running of engines_ 1 

Take-offs and landings_ 1 

Right-of-way_ 2 

Right-side traffic_ 2 

Proximity in flight_ 4 

Air traffic control_ 5 

Nonapplication of air traffic rules. _ 7 

Certificate of waiver_ 7 

Weather classification_ 8 

Minimum safe altitudes_ 8 

Maximum safe altitudes_ 10 

Light and signal rules_ 10 

Aircraft lights_ 10 

Distress signals_ 10 

Forced landing signals_ 11 

Fog signals_ 11 

Visual signals_ 11 

Parachutes_ 11 

Acrobatic flight rules_ 12 

Parachute jumps_ 13 

Contact flight rules_ 13 

Aircraft requirements_ 13 

Weather minimums_ 13 

Over-the-top flight_ 14 

Ceiling and visibility minimums. 14 
Exceptions to weather minimum 

rules_ 14 

Weather changes_ 15 

Flight plan_ 15 

Flight altitudes_ 17 

Notification of arrival_ 17 

Review questions_ 17 

Chapter IL—INSTRUMENT 
FLIGHT RULES 

Pilot requirements_ 19 

Aircraft requirements_ 19 

Equipment_ 19 

Fuel_ 19 

Weather minimums_ 19 

Ceiling and visibility minimums. 19 
Exceptions to weather minimum 

rules_ 20 

Weather changes_ 20 

Communications contacts_ 20 


Chapter II.—INSTRUMENT 

FLIGHT RULES—Continued. 

Weather minimums—Continued. Page 

Communications failure_ 20 

Flight plan_ 20 

Flight plan changes_ 22 

Traffic control_ 22 

En route_ 22 

Approach_ 22 

Over-the-top flight_ 22 

Crossing a civil airway_ 23 

Flight altitudes_ 24 

Notification of arrival_ 24 

Review questions_ 24 

Chapter III.—DESIGNATED AREAS 

Civil airways_ 27 

Airway traffic control areas_ 27 

Flight advisory areas_ 27 

Control airports and control zones. 28 

Flight zones_ 29 

Radio fixes_ 29 

Radio range station_ 29 

Radio marker station_ 30 

On-course signal_ 30 

Range approach channel_ 30 

Emergency areas_ 32 

Restricted areas_ 32 

Review questions_ 32 

Chapter IV.-PILOT REGULATIONS 

Display of pilot certificate_ 33 

Airman identification card_ 33 

Operation during physical defi¬ 
ciency_ 33 

Liquor, narcotics, and drugs_ 33 

Log books_ 33 

Logging of pilot flight time_ 34 

Student pilot_ 34 

Pilots of private grade or higher. 34 

Flight instructor_ 34 

Instrument_ 34 

Flight instructor requirements_ 34 

Rating_ 34 

Instruction time limitation_ 34 

Dual control instruction_ 34 

• Dual control airplanes_ 35 

Instrument instruction_ 35 

Simulated instrument flight_ 35 

Requirements for first solo_ 35 

Three-control airplanes of tradi¬ 
tional type_ 35 

Three-control nonspinnable air¬ 
planes_ 35 

Two-control nonspinnable air¬ 
planes_ 36 


V 


























































































VI 


CONTENTS 


Chapter IV.—PILOT REGULA¬ 
TIONS—Continued. Page 

Restrictions after first solo_ 36 

Student pilot flight area limita¬ 
tions_ 36 

Flight limitations_ 37 

Grounds for elimination of 

trainees_ 37 

Review questions_ 37 

Chapter V.—CERTIFICATION OF 
PILOTS 

Necessity for pilot certificates_ 39 

Grades of pilot certificates_ 39 

Requirements for pilot certificates- 40 

Glider pilot certificates_ 40 

Aircraft pilot certificates_ 40 

Exceptions for commercial pilot 

certificate_ 40 

Airman rating record_ 44 

Pilot aircraft ratings_ 44 

Special pilot ratings_ 44 

Examinations and tests_ 45 

Time and place_ 45 

Physical examinations_ 46 

Aircraft used in tests_ 46 

Inspection_ 47 

Standard of performance_ 47 

Reexamination for pilot certifi¬ 
cates_ 47 

Reexamination for special ratings- 47 

Revocation_ 48 

Duration of pilot certificates_ 48 

Review questions_ 48 

Chapter VI.—AIRCRAFT CERTIFI¬ 
CATION 

Necessity for aircraft certificates-- 49 

Airworthiness certificate_ 49 

Application_ 49 

Issuance_ 49 

Duration._ 50 

Cancellation_ 50 

Transferability_ 50 

Registration certificate_ 50 

Application_ 50 

Duration_ 50 

Invalidation_ 51 

Transferability_ 51 

Aircraft operation record_ 51 

General certificate rules_ 51 

Display_ 51 

Surrender_ 51 

Identification marks_ 52 

Necessity for identification marks. 52 
Assigned identification marks_ 52 


Chapter VL—AIRCRAFT CERTIFI¬ 
CATION—Continued. 

Identification marks—Continued. Page 


Location and display of identifi¬ 
cation marks_ 52 

Lettering of identification marks. 53 
Operation and maintenance of cer¬ 
tificated aircraft_ 53 

Permission to operate aircraft_ 53 

Recent experience requirements. 53 

Aircraft and engine log books_ 54 

Maintenance of certificated air¬ 
craft_ 54 

Periodic inspection_ 54 

Other inspections_ 54 

Contact and Instrument Flight 

Equipment_ 54 

Landplanes_ 54 

Seaplanes and amphibians_ 56 

Review questions_ 56 


Chapter VII.—EMERGENCY AND 
MISCELLANEOUS REGULA- 
TIONS 


Emergency regulations_ 58 

Designated landing areas_ 58 

Take-off procedure_ 58 

Landing procedure_ 59 

Operation of aircraft.!_ 59 

Basing of aircraft_ 59 

Discontinuance of scheduled 

broadcasts_... 60 

Dissemination of meteorological 

information_ 60 

Blackout of air navigation aids_ 61 

Obstructed airports_ 61 

Prohibition of flight over Army 

and Navy installations_ 61 

Miscellaneous regulations_ 62 

Passenger baggage restrictions._ 62 

Towing by aircraft_ 62 

Dropping objects or things_ 62 

Aircraft on water_ 62 

Transportation of explosives_ 62 

Review questions_ 63 

Chapter VIII.—ENFORCEMENT 

Report of violations_^_ 64 

Responsibility for indirect violations. 66 

Most frequent violations_ 66 

Accidents_ 67 

Report and notification of acci¬ 
dents_ 67 

Removal, release, and preserva¬ 
tion of aircraft_ 67 

Review questions_ 68 

GLOSSARY 








































































INTRODUCTION 


THE GOVERNMENT IN CIVIL AVIATION 

Since 1926 the United States Government, through special Congressional 
“acts,’’ has recognized the importance of aviation as a national activity. Ex¬ 
actly one year before Lindbergh took off for Paris, the first of these, the Air 
Commerce Act, approved May 20, 1926, provided for the promotion and regu¬ 
lation of civil aeronautics. 

The act did not create a new bureau in the Department of Commerce to 
perform these functions. The task of establishing, maintaining, and oper¬ 
ating aids to navigation along air routes was assigned to the Lighthouse Serv¬ 
ice; the mapping of air routes to the Coast and Geodetic Survey; and research 
for the improvement of air navigation aids to the Bureau of Standards. Two 
special divisions were established to examine and license aircraft and airmen 
and enforce air traffic rules, and to collect and disseminate aeronautical in¬ 
formation. Collectively, this arrangement was referred to as the Aeronautics 
Branch of the Department of Commerce. 

One year after Wiley Post made his first round-the-world flight, a “Bureau 
of Air Commerce” was born, the first separate Federal Government organiza¬ 
tion devoted exclusively to the management of civil aviation. On July 1, 
1934, the functions of the rather loosely organized Aeronautics Branch were 
combined into a single bureau of the Department. 

A year before the start of the first civilian pilot training program, the Civil 
Aeronautics Act of 1938 abolished the Bureau of Air Commerce in favor of a 
“Civil Aeronautics Authority.” The Authority was an independent agency 
composed of a five-member “authority,” an administrator, and a three-member 
“Air Safety Board.” The five-man group was broadly responsible for economic 
and safety regulation and registration of aircraft. The administrator was 
responsible for the establishment, maintenance, and operation of the civil air¬ 
ways and for carrying out certain developmental work on aeronautical equip¬ 
ment. The safety board investigated aircraft accidents and recommended 
safety programs to the Authority. 

The first successful helicopter was undergoing final development tests, 
when on June 30, 1940, reorgauization plans effected by the President and 
passed by Congress resulted in the complete separation of the five-member 
“authority” and the administrator. The five-man group became the Civil 
Aeronautics Board. The safety board was abolished and its duties assigned to 
a safety bureau within the new Civil Aeronautics Board. Since the above 
date the Board has performed adjudicative, rule-making, and accident investi¬ 
gating functions as an independent agency. The administrator and his staff 
are now known as the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Administration 
is part of the Department of Commerce. 

The Aeronautics Branch, the Bureau of Air Commerce, the Authority, 
and now the Board and the Administration have developed air regulations to 
increase safety. The end result of these organizations’ efforts, the Civil Air 
Regulations, inasmuch as they pertain to pilots, have been digested in this 
book. 

This compact digest, because of its brevity, cannot serve as a legal reference 
to existing Federal air regulations, but it is not intended as such. Rather, 
this edition has been prepared to give the developing airman a concise hand- 

vn 



VIII 


INTKODUCTION 


book which will serve as an unfailing guide to the best tested and approved 
flight practices, ^diile these regulations may be considered ‘laws’’ by law¬ 
yers, to pilots they are merely safety tips with teeth in them. Pilots who follow 
them will have log books full of happy flying hours. 

METHODS BY WHICH SAFETY IS INCREASED 

t 

Much of the safety work of the Board and Administration is not regulatory 
in nature. In cooperation with other agencies, such as the military services, 
the Weather Bureau, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the manufacturers of aircraft and the airline 
transport companies, they maintain services and develop new equipment and 
methods which are directed toward increasing safety. Maps are published 
which give essential information to pilots. The network of “civil airwaj^s,” 
called the Federal Ahways System, is maintained by the Administration. 
Communications systems along these airways are maintained by the Adminis¬ 
tration and others in close cooperation with the Administration, for furnishing 
information regarding weather conditions, traffic and such to pilots during flight 
and to airports and other points on the ground. 

The Civil Aeronautics Board investigates accidents to aircraft and dis¬ 
covers the cause wherever possible. These investigations furnish material 
for bulletins which are sent to ahports for posting on the bulletin board so 
that pilots may learn or be reminded of things to be avoided. The Civil 
Aeronautics Journal, published monthly, carries information dhectly re¬ 
lated to safety. 

Beginning in the late winter of 1938-39 with a few hundred student 
pilots, and continuing with an enlarged program in the fall of 1939, the Civilian^ 
Pilot Training Program was developed for the primary purpose of training a 
large number of pilots under conditions so controlled as to insure a maximum 
of safety, both during the training period and thereafter. 

Since the entire program is now devoted to the training of pilots and in¬ 
structors for the Army and Navy, the name. Civilian Pilot Training, did not 
express the true purpose of the program, and was changed accordingly to CAA 
War Training Service in the latter part of 1942. 

REGULATIONS FOR SAFETY 

One of the duties assigned to the Board by the Civil Aeronautics Act is 
that of making regulations which promote safety. These regulations cover 
a wide range of things related to aviation, but may be grouped under four 
heads: 

(a) those concerned with the competency of the pilot; 

. (b) those concerned with the ahworthiness of the aircraft; 

(c) those concerned with the control of air traffic so that the flight of air¬ 
craft may experience a minimum of delay and hazard due to the presence of 
other aircraft, and 

(d) those directed toward the elimination of undesirable flying practices. 

The Civil Air Regulations (CAR) are the result of study of the combined 

experience of many pilots and others who have worked with aircraft. Com¬ 
pliance with the regulations is not only required by law, but is necessary in the 
development of safe flying habits. 

INDEX OF AIR REGULATIONS 

In this digest, only those regulations have been included which are of par¬ 
ticular interest to pilots in contact and instrument flight. For the use of 


INTRODUCTION 


IX 


persons who may wish to refer to the regulations themselves, the complete 
index is given below: 

Civil Air Regulations 

Part 01.—Ahworthiness Certificates. 

Part 02.—T^^pe and Production Certificates. 

Part 04.—Airplane Ahworthiness. 

Part 13.—Airciaft Engine Airworthiness. 

Part 14.—Aircraft Propeller Airworthiness. 

Part 15.—Ahcraft Equipment Airworthiness. 

Part 16.—Aircraft Radio Equipment Airworthiness. 

Part 18.—Maintenance, Repah, and Alteration of Certified Aircraft and 
of Aircraft Engines, Propellers, and Instruments. 

Part 20.—Pilot Certificates. 

Part 21.—Ahdine Transport Pilot Rating. 

Part 22.—Lighter-Than-Ah Pilot Certificates. 

Part 24. —Mechanic Certificates. 

Part 25.—Parachute Technician Certificates. 

Part 26.^—Air-Traffic-Control-Tower Operator Certificates. 

Part 27.—Ancraft Dispatcher Certificates. 

Part 29.—Physical Standards for Airmen. 

Part 40.—rAir Carrier Operating Certification (Interstate). 

Part 50.—Flying School Rating. 

Part 51.—Ground Instructor Rating. 

Part 52.—Repair Station Rating. 

Part 53. —Mechanic School Rating. 

Part 54.—Parachute Loft Certificates and Ratings. 

Part 60.—Air Traffic Rules. 

Part 61.—Scheduled Air Carrier Rules (Interstate). 

Part 66.—Foreign Air Carrier Regulations. 

Part 97.—Rules of Practice Governing Suspension and Revocation Pro¬ 
ceedings. 

Part 98.—Definitions. 

Part 99.—Mode of Citation of Regulations. 

Regulations of the Administrator 

Part 501.—Aircraft Registration Certificates. 

Part 503.—Recordation of Aircraft Ownership. 

Part 510.—General Regulations, Washington National Airport. 

. Part 511.—General Aeronautical Rules for the Washington National 

Airport. 

Part 525.—Notice of Construction or Alteration of Structures On or Near 
Civil Airways. 

Part 531.—Seizure of Aircraft. ■ 

Part 532.—Reproduction and Dissemination of Current Examination 
Materials. 

Part 600.—Designation of Civil Airways. 

Part 601.—Designation of Airway Traffic Control Areas, etc. 

Most of the rules given in this book are taken from Part 20 and Part 60. 
When reference is made to any of the regulations proper, it is essential to take 
into account the system of numbering the sections if a clear understanding is 
to be obtained. For example, in Part 60 there is a subdivision 60.4 which is 
headed “Flight Rules (Contact)’’ and another, 60.5, headed “Flight Rules 


547788“—48 


2 



X 


INTRODUCTION 


(Instrument).’’ Smaller subdivisions are indicated by one or more additional 
digits. For example, regulation 60.43 states “A flight plan is not required unless 
the flight is made at night and lies within or passes through airway traffic 
control areas.” Although no words to that effect are included in the immediate 
context of the section, the first three numbers indicate that this regulation 
applies to contact flight. Similarly, regulation 60.53 gives the requirement 
with regard to a flight plan for instrument flight, although the words “instrument 
flight” do not occur in the statement of this particular regulation. Similarly, 
in reading regulation 60.532, it must be remembered that the heading 60.5 and 
subheading 60.53 are part of the statement in 60.532. 

Where the Civil Air Regulations are referred to in this digest, the number 
of the particular regulation is carried in parentheses immediately following. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 

In studying the regulations in this digest, it will be noted that with respect 
to the pilot’s use of them there are two kinds. 

1. Some of the regulations, for example those that deal with the issuance 
of pilot certificates and the registration of airplanes, are needed only at stated 
times. In the case of such regulations, it is ordinarily sufficient for the pilot to 
have a general knowledge of their contents and to know when to consult the 
regulations for details. 

2. Others of the regulations, for example those that deal with the mainte¬ 
nance of the airplane and its management in flight, must be so thorouglfly 
learned that the pilot observes them automatically. In the case of such regu¬ 
lations, detailed and specific knowledge is necessary. 

The questions at the end of each chapter have been framed so as to indi¬ 
cate the kind of detail the pilot will probably need to know for contact and 
instrument flight. They are not, however, to be interpreted as covering every¬ 
thing that he should know. 

Review Exercise 

1. Study a copy of the Civil Aeronautics Journal and list the items 
that have a bearing upon safety and explain briefly in what way they are related 
to safety. 


Chapter I.—FLIGHT RULES 


RUNNING OF ENGINES 

No aircraft engine shall be started or run unless a competent operator is 
in the aircraft attending the engine controls. Blocks, equipped with ropes or 
other suitable means of pulling them, shall be placed in front of the wheels 
before starting the engine, or engines, unless the aircraft is provided with 
adequate parking brakes which are fully on (60.331). 

TAKE-OFFS AND LANDINGS 

The following rules shall govern the method by which aircraft shall take 
off and land: 

(a) A take-off shall not be commenced until there is no risk of collision 
with other aircraft during such take-off (60.3300). 

(b) Aircraft approaching for a landing shall circle the airport or other 
landing area sufhciently to observe other traffic, unless the pilot receives other 
instructions from the air-traffic control-tower operator. All circles, either 
approaching for a landing or after take-off, shall be made to the left unless 
the pilot receives other instructions from the air-traffic control-tower operator, 
or unless the Administrator has prescribed, in the interests of safety, a different 
procedure for the particular airport or landing area (60.3301). 



Figure 1.—Traffic Circle. 


1 





















2 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


(c) Aircraft approaching for a landing shall, unless impracticable, main¬ 
tain a straight approach course for the last 1,000 feet before crossing the air¬ 
port boundary. 

{d) Aircraft making contact flights within 3 miles horizontally of the center 
of an airport or other landing area shall conform to the circle rule provided in 
(6) unless flying at an altitude in excess of 1,500 feet above such airport or other 
landing area. 

(e) Air traffic departing from or arriving at a control airport shall take 
precedence over other air traffic within the control zone of such airport when 
required in the interests of safety. 

RIGHT-OF-WAY 

The following rifles will govern aircraft right-of-way: 

(a) Order: —Aircraft in flight shall have right-of-way in the following 
order: (1) Balloons, fixed or free (an airship not under control is classed as a 
free balloon); (2) gliders; (3) airships, and (4) airplanes (including rotor-planes). 



1. BALLOON ( fixed OR FREE 1 




2. GLIDERS 


3. AIRSHIPS 



4 AIRPLANES 


Figure 2.—Order of right-of-way. 


(6) Crossing. —When two aircraft are on crossing courses at approxi¬ 
mately the same altitude, the aircraft which has the other on its left shall 
have the right-of-way, and the other aircraft shall give way. 

(c) Approaching head-on. —When two aircraft are approaching head-on, 
or approximately so, and there is danger of collision, each shall alter its course 
to the right so that they will pass each other at a distance of at least 500 feet. 

id) Overtaking. —An overtaken aircraft shall have right-of-way and the 
overtaking aircraft shall keep clear of the overtaken aircraft by altering its 
own course to the right. 

{e) Landing. —An aircraft landing in the manner prescribed shall have 
right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or on the ground or water, except 
aircraft landing in distress. 

(/) Distress landing. —An aircraft in distress shall have right-of-way in 
attempting to land (60.340). 

RIGHT-SIDE TRAFFIC 

Aircraft operating along a civil airway shall keep to the right of the 
radio range course projected along the airway, or if no radio range course is 
projected along the airway, shall keep to the right of the center line of the 
airway except: 












DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


3 




AIRCRAFT APPROACHING HEAD-ON. 



OVERTAKING AIRCRAFT. 

Figure 3.—Right-of-way. 
































4 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


(a) when impracticable for reasons of safety; 

(b) when otherwise instructed or authorized by an airway traffic control 
center of the Administrator; 

(c) in the case of inbound aircraft operating on instruments and using 
the on-course signal of the radio range; 

(d) when landing or taking off (60.342). 



Figure 4.—Right-side traffic. 


PROXIMITY IN FLIGHT 

No aircraft shall be flown closer than 500 feet to any other aircraft in flight, 
except that by prearrangement two or more aircraft may be flown in formation 
closer than 500 feet to each other. When such flight is to be made within the 
limits of an airway traffic control area, a flight plan shall be filed in accordance 
with the prescribed rules (60.343). 



Figure 5.—Proximity in flight. 




























DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


5 


AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 

Airport traffic control is that control which provides safety in the landing 
and take-off operations at the airport, aircraft taxiing on the landing area, and 
aircraft in flight in the immediate vicinity of the airport. Airway traffic 
control is that control which provides for safety of aircraft in a given control 
area during periods of restricted visibility. 

A comparison of the two types of traffic control is outlined below: 

Airway Traffic Control Airport Traffic Control 

PERSONNEL 


Airway traffic control is exercised by Airport traffic control is exercised by Federal 
Federal personnel. personnel at airports handling large volumes 

of both civil and military traffic and by local 
personnel representing the airport manage¬ 
ment at other airports. 

LOCATION 

Airway traffic control centers are located at Airport traffic control towers are located at 
or near large airports for greater convenience the airport so that the operator will have a 
and lower cost of land line communications. good view of the landing area and the sur¬ 
rounding air space. 

JURISDICTION 


The airway traffic control center has juris¬ 
diction over all aircraft flying in its con¬ 
trol area, including the air space over any 
and all airports lying within its area. The 
extent to which this jurisdiction is exercised 
is dictated by the existing weather conditions 
together with the type of equipment, such 
as tower, and other navigational facilities at 
the airport concerned. 


EXTENT OF 

Airway traffic control is or may be continu¬ 
ous, while the aircraft is in flight on the civil 
airway. (See Jurisdiction.) 


Airport traffic control is exercised over 
aircraft and vehicular traffic operating on 
the landing area of the control airport and 
aircraft in flight within 3 miles of the center 
of such control airports. 

Certain Federally operated airport traffic 
controls towers are designated as “approach 
control” towers. In these cases, certain 
functions and jurisdictions are delegated by 
the airway traffic control center concerned" 
to the Civil Aeronautics Administration air¬ 
port traffic control tower. 

CONTROL 

Airport traffic control is more immediate, 
generally short-lived in relation to each 
flight and is based upon reports received 
from the pilot, the airway traffic control 
center, and upon direct visual observation 
of traffic movements on and in the vicinity 
of the airport. 

In the case of departing aircraft, airport 
traffic control extends from the 'time the 
aircraft appears on the ramp at the airport 
of departure until it passes the boundary of 
the control zone. 


6 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Airway Traffic Control—Continued Airport Traffic Control—Continued 

EXTENT OF CONTROL—Continued 

In the case of arriving aircraft, assigned to 
' the tower by the airway traffic control 

center concerned, the airport traffic control 
extends from the time the aircraft enters 
the control zone or establishes radio contact 
with the tower. 


METHODS OF COMMUNICATIONS 


Airway traffic control communications are 
transmitted by interphone, teletype and 
pneumatic tube to airport traffic control 
towers, U. S. airway communications sta¬ 
tions, air carrier and military radio stations 
and relayed by those agencies to pilots in 
flight by use of radio facilities. 


Airport traffic control is exercised directly 
between tower personnel and aircraft pilots 
by radio and by the use of light signals when 
aircraft are not equipped with radio. 


TRAFFIC ( 

Airway traffic control personnel issue traffic 
clearances and instructions (approve flight 
plans and, as necessary to safety, amend 
flight plans.) 


INFORMATION 

Airway traffic control personnel provide the 
pilot with information regarding other air¬ 
craft which will operate within certain time 
and altitude limits of aircraft concerned. 


SERVICES 

Issuing traffic control instructions and in¬ 
formation to aircraft flying along the civil 
airways for the purpose of preventing colli¬ 
sion between aircraft when weather condi¬ 
tions are such that pilots cannot see and be 
seen sufficiently to avoid collision. 

Providing an orderly and well regulated 
flow of air traffic during restricted weather 
conditions so as to reduce to a minimum 
delay to aircraft in flight. 


EARANCES 

Airport traffic control personnel issue upon 
their own authority, such traffic clearances 
and instructions as pertain to flight of air¬ 
craft in the vicinity and operation of air¬ 
craft or vehicular traffic on the landing area 
of the control airport. Airport traffic 
control personnel relay to pilots, by radio, 
traffic clearances and instructions issued by 
an airway traffic control center. 

TO PILOTS 

Airport traffic control personnel provide 
pilots using the airport with information 
concerning time checks, radio checks, altim¬ 
eter settings, surface winds, other weather 
conditions, runway to be used, air traffic 
within the control zone, ground traffic on 
the landing area, restricted portions of the 
landing area and other field conditions. 

PERFORMED 

Issuing traffic control instructions and in¬ 
formation to aircraft taking off, landing and 
approaching for a landing for the purpose of 
preventing collision between aircraft in 
flight in the vicinity of the landing area. 

Issuing instructions to aircraft taxiing for 
the purpose of preventing collision between 
aircraft on the landing area and between 
aircraft and vehicular traffic on the landing 
area. 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


7 


Airway Traffic Control—Continued Airport Traffic Control—Continued 

SERVICES PERFORMED—Continued 


Maintaining a progressive check of all air¬ 
craft for which flight plans have been filed 
and initiating action to locate overdue air¬ 
craft. 


Warning pilots in flight on a flight plan when 
hazardous weather conditions develop and 
initiating action to supply the pilot with 
information concerning a suitable alternate 
airport or other desired change in flight plan. 

Reporting aircraft accidents involving air¬ 
craft on a flight plan and providing aircraft 
in known difficulty with fullest possible 
assistance. 


Issuing current information on field condi¬ 
tions to pilots of aircraft so that they may be 
fully apprised of the suitability of the landing 
area for the safe completion of the operation 
involved. 

Issuing appropriate warning to pilots of air¬ 
craft when malfunctioning of the aircraft 
which may not be readily apparent to the 
pilot is observed by the tower, such as flat 
tires, engine fires, wheels not down, etc. 

Issuing appropriate warning to pilots of air¬ 
craft when meteorological conditions which 
may not be known to the pilot are observed 
or known to the tower. 


Providing Army Air Forces Fighter Com¬ 
mand Offices with information necessary for 
the identification of friendly and enemy air¬ 
craft in air defense areas. 


Disseminating instructions from military au¬ 
thorities for the blacking out of aeronautical 
lights and radio facilities. 


Relaying messages concerning the operation, 
dispatch and control of aircraft between 
pilots of aircraft and operations offices, 
weather bureau offices, airway traffic control 
centers, and other appropriate agencies. 

Issuing special information to pilots of air¬ 
craft when necessary in the interest of safety 
concerning aeronautical facilities, emergency 
landing areas, obstructions, landmarks, flying 
areas, restrictions, regulations, and/or any 
other appropriate information which may be 
of assistance to the pilot. 


Inaugurating crash and emergency proce¬ 
dures when any emergency occurs on or in the 
vicinity of the landing area. 

NONAPPLICATION OF AIR TRAFFIC RULES 

The air traffic rules, or any particular air traffic rule, shall not apply when 
special circumstances render nonobservance necessary to avoid immediate 
danger, or when such nonobservance is required because of stress of weather 
conditions which could not reasonably have been foreseen, or other unavoidable 
causes. Such nonobservance shall be reported within 24 hours in full detail 
by letter to the Administrator, including a statement of the emergency making 
such nonobservance necessary, the results accomplished by nonobservance, 
and the time when regular observance was resumed after the emergency had 
passed. In such case of nonobservance, if, after investigation by the Admin¬ 
istrator, nonobservance is deemed to have been necessary in the interests of 
safety, no infraction of these rules will have been incurred (60.900 (a). 

CERTIFICATE OF WAIVER 

When, in the opinion of the Administrator, (1) the public interest will be 
best served by the nonobservance of any part of the air traffic rules for a par- 

547788°—43-3 


8 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


ticular activity and for a limited period of time, and (2) such nonobservance will 
not adversely affect safety in air commerce, a certificate of waiver may be issued 
by the Administrator (60.91). 

WEATHER CLASSIFICATION 

Weather minimums are ceiling, visibility, and other minimums provided 
for specified types of flight operation, and below which flight operation is not 
permitted, unless specifically authorized elsewhere in these regulations or by 
the Administrator. 

The local United States Weather Bureau reporting station for each control 
airport will classify existing weather conditions for such airport by one of the 
following symbols: 

Class C — Contact. —Weather equal to or better than the minimums speci¬ 
fied for the particular airport for flight in accordance with contact flight rules. 
(Satisfactory for contact flight.) 

Class N — Instrument. —Weather less than the minimums specified for the 
particular airport for contact flight (Class C above) and down to the minimums 
prescribed for the particular airport for suspension of flight operations. (Re¬ 
quiring observance of instrument flight rules, unless contact flight procedure 
has been authorized.) 

Class X — Closed. —Weather below the minimums specified for the par¬ 
ticular airport, wherein any landing or take-off, other than a flight of public 
aircraft or scheduled air carrier aircraft if otherwise authorized, is suspended 
(60.145). 

MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDES 

Exclusive of taking off from or landing upon an airport or other landing 
area, aircraft shall not be flown below the following minimum safe altitudes of 
flight: 

{a) An altitude over the congested parts of cities, towns, or settlements,* 

sufficient to permit at all times an emergency landing outside of such areas 

in the event of complete power failure, but in no case less than 1,000 feet above 
the ground. 

(6) 1,000 feet above the ground over any Federal penal institution or any 
open-air assembly of persons. 

(c) 500 feet above the ground or water elsewhere than as specified, or 
within 500 feet from any mountain, hill, or other obstruction to flight, except 
as may be specifically approved by the Administrator: Provided, however, That 
seaplanes and amphibians may be flown below 500 feet, but not below 300 feet, 
if making a contact flight during daylight hours over open water and where an 
emergency landing may, at all times, be made, without the aid of power, into 
the wind and without danger of collision with craft on the surface or other 
obstructions: And 'provided further. That the restrictions of this paragraph 
shall not apply to public aircraft, previously authorized by the appropriate 
governmental agency, to make specific flights below such minimimis in the 
public interest. 

{d) 1,000 feet above the ground or water, or within 1,000 feet of any moun¬ 
tain, hill, or other obstruction to flight if an aircraft is making an instrument 
flight. 

{e) Any maneuver required in student instruction or solo practice under 
the supervision of a certificated flight instructor, the Army, Navy, Marine 
Corps, or Coast Guard, or in flight tests given by an inspector of the Adminis¬ 
trator, may be performed at an altitude less than 500 feet above the ground or 
water if necessary for the proper execution of such maneuver notwithstanding 
the provision of (c). 


oo 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


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Figure 6.—Minimum safe altitudes, 







































10 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


MAXIMUM SAFE ALTITUDES 

Aircraft, except military aircraft, must not be flown at altitudes above 
17,000 feet above sea level: ProvideA, however, That air carrier aircraft in 
scheduled air transportation may operate above that altitude when authorized 
by the terms of the air carrier operating certificate issued to the air carrier: 
And provided further, That the Administrator may authorize flights of aircraft 
above that altitude when necessary in the interests of safety or the develop¬ 
ment of aeronautics. 

(a) Military aircraft when operating above 17,000 feet above sea level 
must be equipped with two-way radio equipment adequate to communicate 
at all times with either a ground radio station maintained by one of the armed 
forces of the United States or with an airway communications station of the 
Administrator. Such aircraft shall obtain a clearance from the appropriate 
airway traffic control center of the Administrator before ascending to or de¬ 
scending from that altitude if during such ascent or descent the aircraft enters 
into or passes through an airway traffic control area. 

{h) Military aircraft while operating either contact or on instruments 
above the altitude of 17,000 feet above sea level in accordance with the above 
provisions shall be exempt from all other provisions of this part of the regula¬ 
tions except that such aircraft shall comply with the airplane light rules of 
§ 60.61 and when flying along or crossing routes or civil airways approved for 
use by a scheduled air carrier authorized to operate above 17,000 feet, such 
military aircraft shall comply with the following flight altitudes: 

(1) Eastbound flights .—Aircraft making good a true course of 0° (or 360°) 
to, but not including, 180° shall fly at an ODD thousand-foot level plus 500 
feet, above sea level (such as 17,500, 19,500, or 21,500 feet); and 

(2) Westbound flights .—Aircraft making good a true course of 180° to, but 
not including 360° (or 0°) shall fly at an EVEN thousand-foot level plus 
500 feet, above sea level (such as 18,500, 20,500, or 22,500 feet). 

(c) Aircraft practicing take-offs and landings under contact flight rules 
within an airway traffic control area shall not exceed an altitude of 1,500 feet 
above the airport from which such practice is being conducted. 

LIGHT AND SIGNAL RULES 
Aircraft Lights 

Between sunset and sunrise, lights shall be as follows: 

On airplanes 

Position lights. ' 

On airships 

Same as airplanes, except side lights doubled horizontally in a fore-and-aft 
position and rear light doubled vertically. 

Fixed .—three lights—red, white, and red—in a vertical line one over the 
other. 

On balloons 

Free .—one steady white light and one flashing red light. 

Fixed .—same as fixed airship. 

On stationary aircraft 

Seaplanes .—anchor light showing in all directions. 

Airships .—groups of three red lights on mooring cables. 

Balloons .—same as airships and adequate lights to mark position of object 
to which balloon is moored. 

Distress Signals 

The following signals, separately or together, shall, where practicable, be 
used in case of distress: 



DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


11 


(а) The international signal, S O S by radio: In radiotelephony, the 
spoken expression MAYDAY (corresponding to the French pronunciation of 
the expression ‘‘mAider’’). When, owing to the rapidity of the maneuvers 
to be accomplished, an aircraft is unable to transmit the intended message the 
signal P N not followed by a message retains such meaning. 

(б) The international code flag signal of distress, N C. 

(c) A square flag having either above or below it a ball, or anything 
resembling a ball (60.66). 

Forced Landing Signals 

When an aircraft is forced to land at night at an airport, it shall signal 
its forced landing by making a series of short flashes with its navigation lights, 
if practicable to do so (60.67). 

Fog Signals 

In fog, mist, or heavy weather, an aircraft on the water in navigation 
lanes shall signal its presence by a sound device emitting a signal for about 
5 seconds at 1-minute intervals (60.68). 

Visual Signals 

Aircraft equipped with radio receiver only must acknowledge signals in the 
daytime by movement of the ailerons or rudder on the ground and by rocking 
the wings in the air, and at night by flashing the landing light. 

Aircraft not equipped with radio must observe the tower for light signals and 
acknowledge as above. The light signals with their respective meanings are 
as follows: 


Signal 

Meaning of signal if airplane is— 

Taxiing 

Ready for take-oflf 

In flight 

Steady green 


Cleared for take-off. 

Cleared to land. 

Flashing green _ 
Steady red_ 

Continue taxiing. 
Stop__ __ _ 

Clear the runway im- 

Give way to other air- 

Flashing red_ 

Return to hangar 
line. 

mediately and 
wait. 

Return to hangar 
line. 

craft and continue 
circling. 

Alternating red and 




green _ 

General warning signal—exercise extreme caution. 


PARACHUTES 

No parachute shall be carried in a civil aircraft of the United States in a 
manner available for emergency use unless within the preceding 60 days it 
has been packed by a person certificated for that purpose in accordance with 
the Civil Air Regulations or by personnel of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, 
or Coast Guard whose regular duty is to pack parachutes for use in such 
services (60.36). 

























12 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


ACROBATIC FLIGHT RULES 


Acrobatics are unnecessary flight evolutions voluntarily performed with 
an aircraft requiring or resulting in an abrupt change in its attitude, an abnormal 
attitude, or operations in excess of the aircraft’s design level flight speed (placard 
value). A normal bank not in excess of 70° will not be considered as an abrupt 
change in the aircraft’s attitude or as an abnormal attitude. 


\ 

A' 

/ 

I ^ 

V 

\ ^ 


i "r 


V 






/ 




N 

/ 


\ 


S 


T 


■-«=%- 


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Figure 7.—Altitude for acrobatic flight. 


No person shall acrobatically fly an aircraft— 

(a) At any height whatsoever over a congested area of any city, town, 
or settlement, or over any open-air assembly of persons, or over any airport 
or landing area or within 1,000 feet horizontally thereof, or within the limits of 
a civil airway except within that portion lying adjacent to, but outside of a range 
approach channel. 

(b) At any height less than 1,500 feet over any place over which flight is 
not otherwise restricted. 

(c) At any place unless the visibility is at least 3 miles and the ceiling at 
least 3,000 feet, and unless the pilot has first ascertained that there is no 
danger of collision with other aircraft (60.70). 

Note: No acrobatics may be performed in a range approach channel. 

No person shall acrobatically fly an aircraft while carrying any other person 
or persons for hire: Provided, however, that this provision shall not apply to the 
giving of instruction in acrobatic flying to a person receiving dual instruction 
(60.71). 

Each person in an aircraft flown acrobatically shall be properly equipped 
with a parachute manufactured under a valid type certificate and maintained 
in accordance with the provisions of the Civil Air Regulations (60.72). 















DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 13 

PARACHUTE JUMPS 

No person shall make any exhibition, test, training, or demonstration para¬ 
chute jump— 

(1) unless he has obtained from the Administrator a permit which de¬ 
scribes the equipment and conditions; 

(2) unless he has presented such permit to the person in command of 
the aircraft and received permission to make the jump; 

(3) unless he is wearing a certificated and properly maintained auxiliary 
parachute of a single-harness pack; 

(4) from an altitude of less than 2,000 feet above the surface of the ground 
or water; 

(5) from an aircraft when the siirface wind is more than 15 miles per hour; 

(6) from an aircraft within 2 miles horizontally from a body of water 
unless he is wearing a flotation device approved by the Administrator and 
motor-powered marine rescue equipment is available. 

Exception: A pilot or person in command of a civil aircraft in flight may 
permit a parachute jump from such aircraft to abandon the aircraft in distress 
notwithstanding the above provisions. 

No person shall delay opening his parachute more than is necessary in 
order to clear the aircraft properly and safely, which in no case except in an 
emergency jump shall be less than 1,500 feet above the siudace of the gi’ound. 

CONTACT FLIGHT RULES 
Aircraft Requirements 

Equipment .—See Chapter VI. Although the equipment for contact 
flight does not include radio, the use of at least a radio receiver makes it possible 
for the pilot to avail himself more fully of the facilities provided by the civil 
airways. 

Fuel .—No aircraft shall take off without sufficient fuel and oil, taking into 
account wind and other weather conditions to be encountered during the 
course of the flight, to arrive at its point of first intended landing and effect 
a safe landing thereat (60.42). 

Weather Minimums 

Proximity to cloud formation. —Aii-craft shall not be flown closer than 500 
feet vertically to an overcast or cloud formation nor closer than 2,000 feet 
honzontally to a cloud formation. 



Figure 8.—Ascent through cloud level. 





14 


DEPAKTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Over-the-Top Flight 

No flight of aircraft shall be made over broken clouds or stretches of solid 
overcast unless the attitude of the aircraft and its flight path can at all times 
be controlled by visual reference to the ground or water, and ascent and descent 
can be made in accordance with the minimum distance provisions set forth 
above (60.46). 



AIRCRAFT BEING FLOWN IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE RULES PREVIOUSLY PORTRAYED, 
MAY BE FLOWN ON TOP OF A CLOUD FORMATION IF THE ATTITUDE AND THE FLIGHT 
PATH OF THE AIRCRAFT CAN AT ALL TIMES BE CONTROLLED BY VISUAL REFERENCE 
TO THE GROUND OR WATER. 

Figure 9.—Over-the-top contact flight. 

Ceiling and Visibility Minimums 


Position 

Minimum ceiling 

Minimum visibility 

W ithin control zones 

1,000 feet __ - _ 

3 miles. 

Outside control zones; 


■ 

At or below 1,000 feet_ . 

Sufficient to permit flight at pre- 

1 mile—day. 


scribed minimum safe alti¬ 
tudes. 

2 miles—night. 

Above 1,000 feet_ 

Sufficient to permit flight at pre¬ 
scribed minimum safe alti¬ 
tudes. 

3 miles at flight altitude. 


Exceptions to Weather Minimum Rules 


(1) An airway traffic control center of the Administrator may, for reasons 
of safety, restrict or suspend contact flight operation within the airway traffic 
control area of such center. 























DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


15 


(2) In the interests of safety, the Administrator may require higher mini- 
mums at any particular control airport, and such minimums shall govern the 
control zone in which such control airport lies. 

(3) A certificated air-traffic control-tower operator on duty in a radio- 
equipped airport control tower may suspend contact flight operations within 
the control zone when reasons of safety require such action. 

(4) A certificated air-traffic control-tower operator may authorize flight 
at altitudes of 1,000 feet or less above the ground or water when the visibility is 
less than 3 miles but not less than 1 mile. 



Figure 10.—Minimum ceiling and visibility. (Contact flight outside a control zone.) 


Weather Changes 

If weather conditions below the minimums prescribed for contact flight 
are anticipated or are actually encountered en route, a landing must be made 
at the nearest airport at which weather conditions are equal to or better than 
those prescribed, or the flight must be altered so that it may be made in weather 
conditions as good as, or better than, such minimums, unless such flight can 
and does proceed in accordance with the instrument flight rules (60.470). 

Flight Plan 

A flight plan is not required for contact flight unless the flight is made at 
night'and lies within or passes through airway traffic control areas. 

The contact flight plan shall contain tlie following information: 

{a) Identity of pilot and aircraft. 

(6) Time and point of departure. 

(c) Proposed cruising altitude or altitudes. 

{d) Proposed route to be followed. 

{e) Destination and estimated time of arrival. 

(J) Usable radio equipment carried in aircraft, if any. 

{g) Number of aircraft making the flight, if the aircraft are to be flown in 
formation (60.1330). 

Alternate Air'port .—No alternate airport is required for contact flight. 

547788°—43-4 































imaginary line 1000 feet above ground or water 


16 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



Figure 11.—Visibility at various altitudes (contact flight) 


































DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


17 


Flight Altitudes 

Aircraft flying under contact flight rules shall maintain the minimum safe 
altitudes described in the preceding general flight rules. 

Aircraft flying under contact flight rules along or across a civil airway 
during the night, except for necessary ascent and descent, shall maintain flight 
altitudes prescril3ed for instrument flight; and a flight plan in accordance with 
the above shall be filed for any such flights which are to lie within or pass 
through airway traffic control areas. 

Aircraft flying under contact flight rules along or across a civil airway 
during the day, except for necessary ascent or descent, shall maintain flight 
altitudes prescribed for instrument flight as nearly as existing conditions permit 
(60.471). 


Notification of Arrival 

If the pilot of an aircraft has submitted, or authorized the submission of, 
a flight plan for transmission to destination, he must, immediately upon landing 
or upon completion of the flight, file an arrival message for transmission to the 
point of departure (60.430). 

Review Questions 

1. What provision must be made before starting an airplane engine? 

2. What are the local field traffic rules for the landing field at which you are 

based? 

3. What are the local field traffic rules for the landing fields at which you 

may land in your student cross-country flights? 

4. What precautions must be taken with reference to other aircraft before 

taking off from an airport or landing field? 

5. State the circle rule. 

6. What path must be followed by an aircraft approaching an airport for a 

landing? 

7. List the classes of aircraft in the order in which they have right-of-way 

over other aircraft. 

8. State the rules of right-of-way for aircraft in flight and when taking off 

or landing. 

9. What is the closest proximity at which aircraft may ordinarily be flown? 

10. Under what conditions may exceptions be made to the rule referred to in 

No. 9 above? 

11. - On which side of the radio range course or center line on a civil airway 

must a pilot fly? . 

12. What is the major difference betw^een airway and airport traffic control? 

13. Is it ever possible to disregard any'particular air traffic rule or rules? 

14. What is the purpose of a certificate of waiver? 

15. Name the classes of weather according to the United States Weather 

Bureau, as applied to a control airport. 

16. Is 1,000 feet always a permissible altitude for flight of aircraft over cities 

or towns? 

17. What do you consider to be the reason for the regulation that an aircraft 

shall not be flown above an open-air assembly of persons at an altitude 
lower than 1,000 feet? Over a Federal penal institution? 

18. What are the minimum safe altitudes for aircraft flying above the ground 

and water? 

19. State the regulation regarding the minimum distance from mountains or 

other obstacles to flight. 


18 DEPAKTMENT OF COMMERCE 

20. If a pilot is making an instrument flight, what is the minimum altitude he 

must maintain above the ground or water? 

21. What is the maximum altitude for practicing take-offs and landings under 

contact flight rules within an airway traffic control area? 

22. What lights are required to be on an airplane flying at night? 

23. How would you identify an aircraft as a free balloon by its lights at night? 

As an airship? 

24. What is the distress signal used in radio? 

25. What are the distress signals used in radiotelephony? 

26. In flying at night what signal is used to indicate a forced landing? 

27. If an aircraft is not equipped with radio, how must acknowledgment of 

signals from the tower be made? 

28. Describe the various light signals and give their meanings. 

29. How often must a parachute be repacked and who may repack it? 

30. Define acrobatic flight. 

31. What is the requirement regarding avoidance of other aircraft in acro¬ 

batic flight? 

32. What are the requirements as to ceiling and visibility for acrobatic flight? 

33. May passengers be carried during acrobatic flight? 

34. What is the minimum altitude for acrobatic flight? 

35. May an aircraft be flown acrobatically within the limits of a civil airway? 

36. May an aircraft be flown acrobatically within the limits of a radio approach 

channel? 

37. Under what circumstances is a person permitted to make a parachute 

jump when wearing only one parachute? 

38. What equipment is required for a parachute jump where no emergency 

exists? 

39. Why is radio equipment desirable in contact flight on a civil airway? 

40. What is the fuel regulation for contact flight on civil airways? 

41. State the minimum distances vertically and horizontally from overcasts 

or cloud formations at which a contact flight may be made. 

42. What visibility conditions must prevail in order that contact flight may 

be made over broken clouds? 

43. State the minimum ceiling and visibility requirements for contact flight. 

44. Under what circumstances may the traffic control center of the Adminis¬ 

trator suspend contact flight within a particular airway traffic control 
area? 

45. Wliat discretion is allowed certificated air-traffic control-tower operators? 

46. If, during a flight, weather conditions are encountered or anticipated 

below the minimums prescribed for contact flight, what is the pilot to 
do? 

47. When is a flight plan required for contact flight? 

48. What information must a contact flight plan contain? 

49. State the minimum altitudes for contact &ght of civil aircraft. 

50. Under contact flight rules what altitudes must be maintained when 

flying along or across a civil airway? 

51. Is an alternate airport required for contact flight? 

52. Under what conditions is a pilot who has completed a contact flight 

required to file an arrival message? What is the reason for this re¬ 
quirement? 


Chapter II.—INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES 


In addition to general or special air traffic rules which apply, the following 
rules shall govern instrument flight, flight in closer proximity to cloud forma¬ 
tion than the distances prescribed in weather minimums for contact flight, and 
flight in weather conditions worse than those described, within or approaching 
the limits of a civil airway or elsewhere in interstate, overseas, or foreign air 
commerce. 

PILOT REQUIREMENTS 

No flight shall be made in civil aircraft unless the pilot in charge 

(a) holds a valid instrument rating; or 

(b) holds a valid airline transport pilot certificate; or 

• (c) holds a valid commercial lighter-than-air pilot certificate; or 

(d) is an active member of the regular Army, Navy, Marine Corps, or 
Coast Guard, or a reserve member of any such service on extended active duty 
for at least 1 year, and who holds at least a private pilot certificate issued by the 
Administrator and a military instrument flying rating, or equivalent, issued by 
his service (60.50). 

AIRCRAFT REQUIREMENTS 
Equipment 

Aircraft shall be properly certificated as to equipment according to the 
provisions described in Part 04 of the Civil Air Regulations. 

Fuel 

No aircraft shall take off without fuel and oil sufficient, considering the 
wind and other weather conditions forecast for the flight, at least 

(a) to complete such flight to the point of the first intended landing, and 
thereafter 

{b) to fly to and liind at the alternate airport designated in the approved 
flight plan, and thereafter 

(c) to fly, at normal cruising consumption, for a period of 45 minutes 
(60.52). 

WEATHER MINIMUMS 


Ceiling and Visibility Minimums 


Position 

Minimum ceiling 

Minimum 

visibility 


500 feet_ _ 

1 mile. 


500 feet__ 

1 mile. 

V_/ Ht/olLitJ -— — 

At alternate airports— 

Equipped with radio directional aid; 

2,000 feet __ _ _ 

3 miles. 


1,500 feet 

3 miles. 

XI L/1 L/xAdl L/IA/ Ll'-lO V/.A.AO— — — — — — — — — 

Not equipped "with radio directional aid- 

Unlimited. _ 

3 miles. 


19 
































20 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Exceptions to Weather Minimum Rules 

(1) In the interest of safety, the Administrator may require higher mini- 
.niiims at any airport. If such an airport is a control airport, these higher 
minimums shall govern the control zone in which the airport lies. 

(2) If the control airport is equipped with radio directional aid to air 
navigation designed to direct aircraft to that airport by the aid of instrument, 
a certificated- air-traffic control-tower operator on duty in a radio-equipped air¬ 
port control tower in operation at such airport may authorize departure from 
such control airport when ceiling is not less than 300 feet and visibility is not 
less than one-half mile. 

(3) These rules do not apply to flights by public aircraft or scheduled air 
carrier aircraft from or to a regular terminal or scheduled intermediate stop 
on the regular route. 

Weather Changes 

If weather reports available to the pilot en route indicate that the weather 
conditions will be below the minimums allowing operation into the airport of 
destination at the expected time of arrival, the pilot shall not attempt a landing 
at the airport of destination, but shall either proceed to the appropriate alter¬ 
nate airport as provided for or proceed to an airport where weather conditions 
are at such time equal to or better than those described in the weather mini¬ 
mums (60.570). 

Communications Contacts 

The pilot shall maintain a continuous listening watch on the appropriate 
radio frequency and shall, by radio, contact and report as soon as possible to 
the appropriate communication station the time and altitude of passing each 
radio fix or other checkpoint designated by the Administrator or specified in the 
flight plan together with unanticipated weather conditions being encountered 
and any other information pertinent to the aircraft movement (60.571). 

Communications Failure 

In the event of the electrical or the mechanical failure of aircraft two-way 
communication equipment or in the event that the pilot does not receive radio 
signals sufficient to permit him to maintain instrument navigation, one of the 
following procedures shall be observed: 

(a) he may continue flight in accordance with contact flight rules; or 

(b) he may effect a landing at the nearest suitable airport at which favora¬ 
ble weather conditions exist; or 

(c) in the event weather conditions do not permit the above procedures, 
the pilot may, when sufficient radio signals are received, proceed according to 
his flight plan, including any amending instructions issued and acknowledged 
en route, with particular attention to maintaining his last acknowledged assigned 
altitude until the approach time last authorized for and acknowledged by the 
pilot of such aircraft, after which landing may be made (60.572). 

FLIGHT PLAN 

Prior to take-off from any point within an airway traffic control area and 
prior to entering such an area, an approved flight plan is required. No flight 
plan shall be submitted until after the pilot has made a careful study of avail¬ 
able current weather reports and forecasts and believes the flight can be made 
with safety (60.53). 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


21 


The flight plan shall contain the following information: 

(а) The aircraft identification mark, or the name of the Governmental 
service in which the aircraft is employed, if so employed, or the name of the air 
carrier operator and the trip number, if engaged in scheduled air transportation 
service. 

(б) The type of aircraft involved and the number of aircraft making the 
flight, if the aircraft are in formation. 

(c) The name of the pilot, or the flight commander if the aircraft are in 
formation. 

(d) The point of departure of the particular flight for which such plan is 
being filed. 

(e) The proposed cruising altitude or altitudes and the route to be followed. 

(/) The point of first intended landing. 

(g) The proposed cruising air speed. 

(h) Transmitter frequency. 

(i) The proposed time of departure. (The time of departure shall be 
considered as the time when the aircraft leaves the ground.) 

(j) The estimated elapsed time until arrival on the ground at the point 
of first intended landing. (For scheduled operation, the first stop to be made, 
together with additional stops, if requested by an airway traffic control center.) 

(k) The alternate airport or airports. 

(l) Any other pertinent information which the pilot deems useful for con¬ 
trol purposes or which may be requested by an airway traffic control center 
(60.1331). 



FOR FLIGHT, SUBJECT TO 
THE "INSTRUMENT FLIGHT 
RULES,” PILOT AND AIRCRAET 
MUST BE PROPERLY RATED 
AND EQUIPPED FOR FLIGHT 


BY INSTRUMENTS,ONE 
OF THESE REQUIRE- 
MENTS BEING,THAT 
THE A'IRORAFT BE 
EQUIPPED WITH 
PROPERLY FUNCT¬ 
IONING TWO-WAY 
RADIO.- 





Figure 12.—Radio equipment for instrument flight. 


















































22 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Flight Plan Changes 

No change shall be made en route in any approved flight plan until ap¬ 
proval has first been obtained from the airway traffic control center of the 
Administrator for the area in which the flight is progressing, unless an emer¬ 
gency situation arises which requires immediate decision and action, in which 
case, as soon as possible after such emergency authority is exercised, the pilot 
shall inform the proper control center of the new flight plan and obtain approval 
therefor (60.573). 

TRAFFIC CONTROL 
- En Route 

No person shall operate an aircraft en route contrary to traffic control 
instructions issued by an airway traffic control center of the Administrator. 

Approach 

No person shall operate an aircraft during an approach for landing at a 
control airport contrary to traffic control instructions issued by a certificated 
air traffic control tower operator of the Administrator on duty at such airport 
(60.530). 


PILOTS ARE REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN A CONSTANT LISTENING WATCH ON ■ 
THE APPROPRIATE RADIO FREQUENCY IN ORDER THAT THEY MAY BE READY 
TO RECEIVE ANY AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL-INSTRUCTIONS WHICH MAY BE ISSU¬ 
ED BY AN AIRWAY TRAFFIC CONTROL CENTER. 



Over-the-Top Flight 

Over-the-top flight shall be governed by instrument flight rules whenever the 
attitude of the aircraft and its flight path cannot be controlled at all times by 
visual reference to the ground or water (60.56). 













DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


23 



VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SEPARATION 

Figure 14.—Separation of aircraft in instrument flight. 


Crossing a Civil Airway 

Unless otherwise instructed by an airway traffic control center of the 
Administrator, a civil airway shall not be crossed at an angle of less than 45° 
to such airway (60.58). 


Note: The old requirement that aircraft on instrument flight plan increase their altitude 500 feet upon crossing an 
airway has been abolished. 



Figure 15.—Crossing a civil airway (at least 45° angle). 


547788°—43-5 































24 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


FLIGHT ALTITUDES 

Unless different altitudes are assigned by an airway traffic control center 
of the Administrator, the following flight altitudes shall govern flights made in 
accordance with instrument flight rules. 

Along Green or Red Civil Airways 

Eastbound flights .—Aircraft making good a true course of from 0° (or 360°) 
to, but not including, 180° shall fly at an ODD thousand-foot level above sea 
level (such as 3,000, 5,000, or 7,000 feet). 

Westbound flights .—Aircraft making good a true course of from 180° to, 
but not including, 360° (or 0°) shall fly at an EVEN thousand-foot level above 
sea level (such as 2,000, 4,000, or 6,000 feet). 

Along Blue or Amber Civil Airways 

Northbound flights .—Aircraft making good a true course of from 270° to, 
but not including, 90° shall fly at an ODD thousand-foot level above sea level 
(such as 3,000, 5,000, or 7,000 feet). 

Southbound flights .—Aircraft making good a true course of from 90° to, 
but not including, 270° shall fly at an EVEN thousand-foot level above sea 
level (such as 2,000, 4,000, or 6,000 feet). 



NOTIFICATION OF ARRIVAL 


If the pilot of an aircraft has submitted, or authorized the submission of, 
a flight plan for transmission to destination as provided for, he shall, immedi¬ 
ately upon landing or upon completion of the flight, file an arrival message for 
transmission to the point of departure. 

Review Questions 


1. Under what conditions must instrumeut flight rules be applied? 

2. What mting must a pilot hold to make an instrument flight? 

3. What is the fuel regulation for instrument flight? 






DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 25 

4. State the minimum ceiling and visibility requirements for instrument 

flight within and outside control zones. 

5. At an alternate airport, what are the minimum ceiling and visibility re¬ 

quirements? 

6. Is it ever permissible to take off from a control airport when weather 
. conditions are below the prescribed minimums? 

7. If weather reports received by a pilot indicate conditions below the 

minimums into the airport of destination, what is the pilot to do? 

8. What information must be given to the appropriate communication 

station during an instrument flight? 

9. In the event of failure of two-way communication equipment or insuffi¬ 

cient radio signals, what must the pilot do? 

10. Before submitting a flight plan, what precautionary measures ^must a 

pilot take? 

11. Is it ever permissible to fly an aircraft under instrument flight rules 

without submitting a flight plan? 

12. What procedure must be followed when a change is made in an approved 

flight plan? 

13. How is the operation of aircraft under instrument flight controlled? 

14. State the rule for crossing a civil airway. 

15. When must over-the-top flight be governed by iustrument flight rules? 

16. Explain the meaning of vertical, horizontal, and lateral separation. 

17. What flight altitudes must be maintained by aircraft flying along green 

or red civil airways? Along blue or amber civil airways? 

18. Upon landing or completion of an instrument flight made on an approved 

flight plan, what action is required of the pilot? 































































Chapter III.—DESIGNATED AREAS 


Paths through the navigable air space designated by the Administrator of 
Civil Aeronautics as Civil Airways and certain portions of such ahways desig¬ 
nated by the Board form a network which is referred to in many of the Civil 
Air Regulations. This network will be described in this chapter. 

CIVIL AIRWAYS 

A civil airway is a path thi'ough the navigable air space of the United States, 
identified by an area on the surface of the earth, designated or approved by 
the Administrator of Civil Aeronautics as suitable for interstate, overseas, or 
forei^ air commerce. In accordance with, the provisions of the Civil Aero¬ 
nautics Act of 1938, the Admuiistrator has designated certain areas as civil 

airwavs. 

».' 

The airways are designated by naming points on the earth and connecting 
these points by straight lines. The lines so drawn are called center lines. 
The width of the airway extends, in accordance with the Administrator’s order, 
5 miles on either side of the center line. The civil airway includes all of the 
navigable au’ space above this area. The map, figm^e 17, shows the civil ah- 
ways as of June 1, 1943. 

As indicated by figure 17, the airways are named by number and color.. 
The colors used are gi’een, red, amber, and blue. There are, for example, 
amber civil airway No. 4, extending from Brownsville to Bismarck, and green 
civil airway No. 4, extending from Los Angeles to Philadelphia. The width of 
the airway as shovm on the map is drawn to an exaggerated scale. The points 
used in designating the center lines of the civil airwaj^s are radio range stations, 
radio marker stations, or intersections of the center lines of on-com'se signals. 
These are discussed in detail in Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 24, Pkactical 
Air Navigation. 

AIRWAY TRAFFIC CONTROL AREAS 

An airway traffic control area is an area within the limits of a civil airway 
designated by the Administrator. All air traffic within such area is controlled 
by an airway traffic control center of the Administrator located within the 
control area. 

The airway traffic control centers are indicated by suitable symbols in 
figure 17. The airway traffic control area is indicated by appropriate shading 
of that portion of the civil airways. Within such areas the flight of an aircraft 
is, or may be, continuously controlled through communication facilities, by 
Federal personnel. Outside airway traffic control areas, the supervision of a 
flight is, to a greater extent, governed by the general rules of the Civil Air 
Regulations. 

FLIGHT ADVISORY AREAS 

A flight advisory area is an area designated by the Administrator in which 
the airway traffic control center gives flight advisory service to pilots of air¬ 
craft operating on flight plans. 


27 




.28 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 



Figure 18.—Interior of a typical airway traffic control center. 


CONTROL AIRPORTS AND CONTROL ZONES 

A control airport is an airport which has been so designated by the Adminis¬ 
trator to provide for the safety of aircraft moving in air commerce. A control 
zone is the air space above that area on the surface of the earth within 3 
miles of the center of a control airport, and within one-half mile of a line 
extending from the center of such airport to the radio range station estab¬ 
lished for the purpose of directing air traffic to such airport. Figure 19 gives 
a diagrammatic interpretation of the definition of a control zone. There are 
approximately 150 control airports in the United States. A control airport 
is not necessarily on a civil airway, but most of them are. 



WHERE RADIO RANGE STATION IS 
LOCATED LESS THAN 3 MILES 
FROM CENTER OF THE AIRPORT. 


WHERE RADIO RANGE STATION IS 
LOCATED MORE THAN 3 MILES 
FROM CENTER OF THE AIRPORT. 


Figure 19.—Map showing types of control zones. 



















































DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


29 


All aircraft within a control zone must be operated in accordance with 
traffic control instructions issued by certificated air-traffic control-tower 
operators of the Administrator on duty at the control airport of such zone. 

FLIGHT ZONES 

Flight zones may be designated by the Administrator for specific purposes 
within the local flying area adjacent to any control airport. No person shall 
make a flight of a type for which a zone has been set apart except within 
such zone. 



RADIO FIXES 

Radio fixes are geographi¬ 
cal locations designated by 
the Administrator on a civil 
airway above which the posi¬ 
tion of an aircraft in flight can 
be accurately determined by 
means of radio only (such as 
a cone of silence marker, Z- 
type marker, fan-type marker, 
or intersection of radio range 
on-course signals (60.112). 

Radio Range Station 

A radio range station is that 
point in a radio station from 
which radio signals are emitted 
for the purpose of assisting an 
aircraft to maintain a course. 



Figure 21.—Aircraft in instrument flight using radio range course 

and fan marker. 




























































30 


' DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Radio Marker Station 

A radio marker station is similar to a radio range station, but is of low 
power and limited range. It may be located where one radio range station 
beam intersects or overlaps another or at other points where a ‘‘radio fix’’ is 
desired. 

On-Course Signal 

A radio range station, by directional control, projects alternately the code 

signal for the letter A (._) on one side of the course and the code signal for the 

letter N (_) on the other side of the course. Where the two signal areas overlap 

they fuse and produce a steady hum in the radio receiver of the aii'plane. This 
steady hum is called the on-course signal. 



Figure 22.—Diagram showing radio range signals. 


RANGE APPROACH CHANNEL 

A range approach channel is the air space above the ground or water below 
17,000 feet above sea level located within 2 miles of either side of the center of 
the on-course signal of any leg or legs designated by the Administrator of a 
radio range station serving a control airport, and extending along such leg or 
legs from such radio range station for a distance of 15 miles: Provided, That 
such range approach channels may be modihed or extended by the Adminis¬ 
trator when he deems it necessary’in the interests of safety. 

Unless on an approved flight plan, no person shall fly an aircraft within 
the limits of a range approach channel above 1,500 feet over the surface of the 
earth except to enter such a channel on the right side as determined by the pro¬ 
posed direction of flight. No person shall fly an aircraft below 1,500 feet above 
the surface of the earth within an approach control channel except to cross such 
channel at an angle of not less than 45°. However, when taking off or landing 






DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


31 


at a designated landing area located within a range approach channel, a pilot 
may perform such maneuvers below 1,500 feet as are necessary to effect a 
normal take-off or approach and landing, as the case may be. 




Figure 24.—Flight in range approach. 





















































































32 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


EMERGENCY AREAS 

Certain areas have been designated for specific purposes as follows: 

(a) Designated landing area. —^An area designated by the Administrator for 
the landing and take-off of aircraft during the period of national emergency. 

{h) Local flying area. —An area adjacent to a designated landing area, 
including any channel leading thereto, which has been set aside by the Admin¬ 
istrator, or his authorized representative, for local flying. 

(c) Vital defense area. —An area set aside by the Secretary of War, or the 
Administrator upon the request or approval of the Secretary of War, within 
which the operation of aircraft is prohibited or authorized only subject to 
prescribed conditions. 

{d) Zone of military operations. —An area designated as such by the 
Secretary of War, or the Administrator upon the request or with the approval 
of the Secretary of War. 

RESTRICTED AREAS 

Areas in which the flight of aircraft is prohibited or restricted are classified 
as caution areas, danger areas, and prohibited areas. 

(а) Caution area. —An area designated by the Administrator in which a 
visible hazard to aircraft in flight exists and which should be avoided if 
practicable. 

(б) Danger area. —An area designated by the Administrator in which an 
invisible hazard to aircraft in flight exists. No flight of aircraft shall be con¬ 
ducted in this area without specific authority issued by the agency having 
jurisdiction over the danger area. 

(c) Prohibited area. —An area established by Executive Order of the 
President of the United States. No flight of aircraft shall be made in this area 
except by aircraft actually engaged in defense missions, or otherwise in accord¬ 
ance with the Executive Order establishing such areas (60.348). 

Restricted areas are indicated on aeronautical charts and published in the 
Weekly Notice to Airmen. 


Review Questions 

1. What are civil airways and by whom are they designated? 

2. May any area at all be designated as a civil airway? 

3. How wide is a civil airway? 

4. How are civil airways named? 

5. What points are used in designating center lines of civil airways? 

6. What is an airway traffic control area? 

7. What is a flight advisory area? 

8. What is a control airport? 

9. Is it necessary for a control airport to be on a civil airway? 

10. What is a control zone? ^ 

11. How is traffic controlled in a control zone? 

12. What is the purpose of a flight zone and where may they be designated? 

13. What is the purpose of a radio fix? 

14. Explain the difference between a radio range station and a radio marker 

station. 

15. How can a pilot recognize the on-course signal? 

16. What is a range approach channel? 

17. On which side of a range approach channel should an aircraft enter? 

18. When may an aircraft be flown within the limits of a range approach 

channel above an altitude of 1,500 feet? Below 1,500 feet? 

19. Who designates vital defense areas? 

20. Define the following: Caution area, danger area, and prohibited area. 


Chapter IV.—PILOT REGULATIONS 


DISPLAY OF PILOT CERTIFICATE 

A pilot’s certificate must be kept in the personal possession of the pilot 
at all times when piloting aircraft, and must be presented for inspection upon 
request of any passenger, or any authorized officer or employee of the Adminis¬ 
trator or Board and of any State or municipal official charged with the duty 
of enforcing local laws or regulations involving Federal compliance (20.33). 

AIRMAN IDENTIFICATION CARD 

No pilot shall operate aircraft in flight unless he has in his possession an 
airman identification card, issued by the Administrator, containing his finger¬ 
prints, picture, and signature, or a document, satisfactory to the Adminis¬ 
trator, issued by the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard, identifying 
the pilot as a member thereof (20.37). 

OPERATION DURING PHYSICAL DEFICIENCY 

A certificated pilot shall not operate any aircraft during the period of any 
known physical deficiency which would make him during that period unable 
to meet the physical requirements with which he complied in order to secure 
his certificate: Provided, however, That the holder of at least a private pdot 
certificate may operate an aircraft otherwise than for hire during the period of a 
temporary physical deficiency if the aircraft is equipped with fully function¬ 
ing dual controls and the other control seat is occupied by another pilot who 
holds at least a private pilot certificate (20.75). 

LIQUOR, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS 

No pilot or other member of the crew of an aircraft in flight shall be under 
the influence of, or use intoxicating liquor, cocaine, or other habit-forming 
drugs, nor shall such person carry any other person who is obviously under the 
influence of intoxicating liquor, cocaine, or other habit-forming drugs, except 
a medical patient under proper care, or in case of emergency (60.345). 

LOG BOOKS 

Every certificated pilot and every person receiving flying instruction shall 
keep an accurate record of his flying time m a log book m which the entries 
with respect to solo flying time have been certified to by him and the entries 
with respect to dual instruction have been certified to by his certificated 
instructor. Log books must be bound records and the entries must be accurate, 
legible, in ink or indelible pencil, and so arranged as. to facilitate easy reference 
thereto (20.760). 

The log book must contain the date of flight, the make and model of air¬ 
craft flown, its type, and, in the case of an airplane, its airplane class and horse¬ 
power, the aircraft identification mark^ a statement of solo, dual instruction, 
instrument and night flying time, the duration of the flight, the points between 
which such flight was made, and, in addition, when any flight results in serious 
damage to the aircraft, a notation to this effect. Flying instruction time must 
be logged in the same manner and, m addition, the instructor must make com¬ 
plete entries in the log book of his student showing the nature of each maneuver 

33 




34 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


in which instruction was given and the time spent thereon. The instructor must 
attest each such entry with his initials, pilot certificate number, and pertinent 
rating. A log book must be presented for inspection, upon request and reason¬ 
able notice, to*any authorized representative of the Administrator or Board or 
State or municipal officer enforcing local regulations or laws involving Federal 
compliance (20.761). 

LOGGING OF PILOT FLIGHT TIME 
Student Pilot 

The holder of a student pilot certificate may log as solo flight time only 
that time during which he is the sole occupant of an aircraft in flight. 

Pilots of Private Grade or Higher 

The holder of a pilot certificate, other than a student pilot certificate, may • 
log as solo flight time that portion of any flight during which he is the sole 
manipulator of the controls: Provided, That he may log as solo flight time only 
50 percent of any flight time during which a certificated instructor or a cer¬ 
tificated air line transport pilot is in the aircraft serving as an instructor for 
the purpose of reviewing or increasing such pilot’s skill: And provided Jurther, 
That the holder of a commercial pilot certificate while serving in scheduled air 
transportation shall log his flight time as provided in Part 61. 

Flight Instructor 

A certificated instructor may log as solo flight time all that flight time 
during which he is serving as an instructor for the pm^pose of reviewing or 
increasing another pilot’s sldll. 

Instrument 

Instrument flight time may be logged as such only when the aircraft is 
flown solely by reference to instruments whether under actual or properly 
simulated flight conditions. (Over-the-top flying shall not be logged as instru¬ 
ment flight time) (20.762). 

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REQUIREMENTS 

Rating 

No person may give flying instruction to any other person unless he 
possesses at least a valid commercial pilot certificate and a valid flight instructor 
rating, or, in case of instruction to glider students, unless possessed of a valid 
commercial glider pilot certificate: Provided, however. That the holder of a 
valid private pilot certificate and a valid instructor rating may give flying 
instruction not for hire (20.80). 

Instruction Time Limitation 

No flight instructor may give more than 36 hours of dual flying instruction 
or check time in any 7-day period (20.82). 

DUAL CONTROL INSTRUCTION 

No flight instruction shall be given unless the aircraft in which the in¬ 
struction is given is equipped with fully functioning dual controls, except in 
aircraft manufactured prior to January 1, 1939 (20.81). 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


35 


DUAL CONTROL AIRPLANES 

. Airplanes equipped with fully or partially functioning dual controls may 
not be operated with both control seats occupied unless one of such control 
seats is occupied (a) by a person possessing at least a valid commercial pilot 
certificate, or (b) by a person possessing at least a valid private pilot certificate 
and a valid instructor rating, or (c) by a person possessing at least a valid 
private pilot certificate and-whose Airman Rating Record has been endorsed 
by a duly authorized representative of the Administrator to the effect that such 
person has logged at least 200 hours of solo flight time and is competent to 
exercise the privilege granted by this section: Provided, That two persons may 
occupy such control seats if each such person possesses at least a valid private 
pilot certificate: Provided jurther, That where more than one passenger is 
carried for hire neither control seat may be occupied by any person other than 
a properly certificated commercial pilot (20.724). 

INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTION 

Instrument instruction in flight is not deemed flying instruction within 
the meaning specified, but no person may give instrument instruction in flight 
unless he possesses a valid instrument rating (20.83). 

SIMULATED INSTRUMENT FLIGHT 

No person shall operate an aircraft under simulated instrument flight 
conditions unless: 

{a) fully functioning dual controls are installed in the aircraft; 

(6) a properly certificated pilot occupies the other control seat as safety 
pilot; and 

(c) such safety pilot at all times has adequate vision from the aircraft: 
Provided, That if the vision of the safety pilot forward or to either side of the 
aircraft is obstructed, a competent observer must occupy such a position in 
the aircraft that his field of vision adequately supplements that of the safety 
pilot. 

{d) Notwithstanding provisions of {a), {h), and (c) of this section, a 
member of the Armed Forces of the United States may operate single-place 
aircraft in simulated instrument flight: Provided, such flights shall be made 
only during the hours of daylight, in accordance with contact flight rules: 
And provided further, each such aircraft is accompanied by and under the con¬ 
tinuous control by radio of a competent observer in an escort aircraft (20.725). 

REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRST SOLO 
Three-Control Airplanes of Traditional Type 

No first solo flight shall be made by a student pilot in a three-control 
airplane of traditional type until he shall have had a minimum of 8 hours of 
dual instruction in such aircraft, including recovery from spins and stalls. 

Three-Control Nonspinnable Airplanes 

No first solo flight shall be made by a student pilot in a nonspinnable 
three-control airplane until he shall have had a minimum of 8 hours of dual 
instruction in three-control airplanes. Instruction in spins is not required. 


36 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Two-Control Nonspinnable Airplanes 

No first solo flight shall be made by a student pilot in a two-control non¬ 
spinnable airplane with nose wheel type landing gear until he shall have 
had a minimum of 5 hours of dual instruction in such airplanes. 

♦ In addition to meeting the above requirements, a student pilot shall not 
make a first solo flight unless his instructor deems him competent to make 
such flight and so certifies on the student pilot certificate in the provided space 
(20.7200). 

RESTRICTIONS AFTER FIRST SOLO 

Upon completion of a student pilot’s first solo flight, his instructor shall 
make a notation to that effect on the student pilot certificate, together with a 
statement of the date, the type, and, in the case of an airplane, the airplane 
class and horsepower range of the aircraft so flown. If such solo flight is made 
either in a two-control nonspinnable airplane with nose wheel type landing 
gear or in a three-control airplane determined to be characteristically incapable 
of spinning, the instructor shall also make an appropriate notation to that effect. 

' Thereafter— 

(a) If such first solo flight was made in a three-control airplane of tradi¬ 
tional type, the student shall not solo aircraft of a different type, class or horse¬ 
power range until such time as his instructor shall deem him competent to fly 
such other aircraft solo, and shall have made a notation to that effect on his 
certificate, together with the date, type, and, in the case of an airplane, the class 
and horsepower range. 

(b) If such first solo flight was made in a three-control airplane determined 
to be characteristically incapable of spinning, such pilot shall be subject to the 
limitations of paragraph (a) above, and in addition, he shall not solo an airplane 
characteristically capable of spinning until after he shall have received dual 
instruction in spins, and a notation to that effect has been made on his Airman 
Rating Record. 

(c) If such first solo flight was made in a two-control nonspinnable air¬ 
plane with nose wheel type landing gear, such pilot shall be subject to the 
limitations of paragraphs (a) and (b) above, and in addition, prior to flying solo 
a three-control airplane, shall have received a minimum of 4 hours of dual 
instruction in such airplanes (20.7201). 

STUDENT PILOT FLIGHT AREA LIMITATIONS 

(a) No student pilot shall make a solo flight outside of an area, in the 
vicinity of the operating base of his instructor, prescribed in wTiting by the 
person directly in charge of the landing area on which the instructor’s operat¬ 
ing base is located and approved by the local inspector of the Administrator, 
unless such student pilot has been certified for cross-country solo flights. 

(b) No student pilot shall be certified for cross-country solo flight until 
after he shall have logged 8 hours’ solo flight time and his instructor shall have 
certified on his student pilot certificate, in the space provided, that he deems 
the student competent to make such flight. 

No student pilot certified for cross-country solo flights shall make a 
solo flight outside of the area, within a 150-mile radius of the operating base 
of his instructor, prescribed in writing by the person directly in charge of the 
landing area on which the instructor’s operating base is located and approved 
by the local inspector of the Administrator: Provided, That a certificated flying 
school may prescribe in-writing an area within a 250-mile radius of its oper¬ 
ating base and, upon approval of said area by the local inspector of the Admin¬ 
istrator, a student pilot enrolled in the flight curriculum of said school and 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 37 

certified for cross-country solo flights may fly solo within such area at the 
direction of said flying school. 

(c) No person shall operate an aircraft in solo flight outside the flight area 
specified in his pilot certificate or Airman Rating Record. 

(d) Flight area designations submitted to the local inspector under sub¬ 
sections (a) and (b) hereof shall be deemed approved by him unless the person 
submitting the designations is otherwise notified by the inspector within 15 
days from the date of submission. 

FLIGHT LIMITATIONS 

(а) Student. —A student pilot shall not operate aircraft for hire or carry 
anyone other than a certificated instructor. A student pilot who has not 

flown an aircraft within 90 days shall not operate aircraft in solo flight until 
he has passed a satisfactory flight check given by a certificated instructor and 
that fact has been endorsed on his student pilot certificate (20.720). 

(б) Private pilot. —A person possessed of a valid private pilot certificate 
shall not pilot for hire any aircraft carrying any person or property; nor pilot 
any aircraft in furtherance of a business except as an incident to his personal 
transportation: Provided, That this section shall not prevent such pilot from 
receiving remuneration by direction of the Government of the United States, 
or of any State or political subdivision thereof, for participation in official 
missions of the Civil Air Patrol or of any other recognized semimilitary organiza¬ 
tion, while a member of such organization (20.721). 

(c) Commercial pilot. —A person possessed of a valid commercial pilot 
certificate shall not pilot any aircraft carrying any person or property in sched¬ 
uled air transportation service unless also possessed of a valid instrument 
rating (20.722). 

Grounds for Elimination of Trainees 

Flights not under the supervision of an approved flight instructor or 
flights in an unassigned airplane are grounds for the elimination of any trainee 
in the CAA War Training Service Program. 

Review Questions 

1. When a pilot operates an aircraft, what personal identification must he 

have in his possession? 

2. Is a student pilot required to carry his pilot certificate with him when 

receiving dual instruction? 

3. Is it ever possible for a pilot to operate an aircraft without an airman 

identification card? 

4. If a certificated pilot has any known physical deficiency which would make 

him unable to meet the physical requirements, may he operate an air¬ 
craft? 

5. What should a pilot do if after taking off he finds that a passenger has 

with him intoxicating liquor? 

6. Under what conditions must entries with respect to flying time be certified 

by a certificated instructor? Who certifies entries with respect to other 

flying time? 

7. How does the instructor attest entries of flight instruction time in a 

trainee’s log book? 

8. Who must make the entries on flight instruction time in a trainee’s book? 


38 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


9. May a student pilot log as solo flight time that time in which he is receiving 
dual instruction? 

10. Is it possible for the holder of a valid private pilot certificate and instructor 

rating to give flying instruction? 

11. May a flight instructor give 40 hours of dual flying instruction or check 

time in a 7-day period? 

12. Under what conditions may a dual-control airplane be operated with dual 

controls fully or partially functioning and both control seats occupied? 

13. What provisions have been made for aircraft operating under simulated 

instrument conditions? 

14. What requirements must be met before a student pilot may make his first 

solo flight? 

15. If a student pilot makes his first solo flight in a three-control airplane, may 

he solo a three-control airplane of traditional type? 

16. What is the area limitation for solo cross-country flight by a student pilot? 

17. What experience is required before a student pilot may make a cross¬ 

country solo flight? 

18. May a student pilot operate an aircraft for hire? 

19. May a student pilot operate an aircraft carrying passengers not for hire? 

20. May a private pilot operate an aircraft carrying passengers not for hire? 

21. What provision has been made for private pilots participating in official 

missions of the Civil Air Patrol? 

22. What specific limitations apply to CAA War Training Service trainees? 


Chapter V.—CERTIFICATION OF PILOTS 


NECESSITY FOR PILOT CERTIFICATES 

It is unlawful— 

(a) for any person to serve in any capacity as an airman in connection 
with any civil aircraft used in air commerce without an airman certificate 
authorizing him to serve in such capacity, or in violation of the terms of any 
such certificate; 

(b) for any person to employ for service in connection with any civil air¬ 
craft used in air commerce an airman who does not have an airman certificate 
authorizing him to serve in the capacity for which he is employed. 

‘h4ir commerce” means interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce or 
the transportation of mail by aircraft or any operation or navigation of aircraft 
within the limits of any civil airway or any operation or navigation of aircraft 
which directly affects, or which may endanger safety in, interstate, overseas, 
or foreign air commerce. (Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, title I, sec. 1 (3), and 
title VI, sec. 610 (a) (2, 3). 

However, the Civil Aeronautics Board has declared that any operation 
of aircraft in the air space overlying the United States either directly or indi¬ 
rectly affects, or may endanger safety in, interstate, overseas, or foreign air 
commerce (amendment 135). 

Consequently, no person shall pilot civil aircraft in the United States un¬ 
less such person holds a valid pilot certificate or an effective foreign pilot 
certificate validated by the Administrator. However, any person may operate 
the controls of an aircraft if the aircraft is equipped with fully functioning dual 
controls and one of the control seats is occupied by a person holding an appro¬ 
priate pilot certificate (60.30). 

GRADES OF PILOT CERTIFICATES 

The Administrator issues various pilot certificates which indicate the 
aeronautical qualifications of the holders and specify the capacity in which the 
holders are authorized to serve in connection with aircraft. 

Aircraft pilot certificates, other than glider or lighter-than-air, are classified 
in the following ascending grades: 

(1) Student pilot certificate. 

(2) Private pilot certificate. 

(3) Commercial pilot certificate. 

(4) Airline transport pilot certificate (provided for in all respects in Part 

21 of the Civil Air Regulations). 

Glider pilot certificates are classified in the following ascending grades: 

(1) Student glider pilot certificate. 

(2) Private glider pilot certificate. 

(3) Commercial glider pilot certificate. 

Lighter-than-air pilot certificates are provided for in all respects in Part 22 
of the Civil Air Regulations, 


39 




40 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


REQUIREMENTS FOR PILOT CERTIFICATES 
Glider Pilot Certificates 

The requirements for the various grades of glider pilot certificates are 
given in sections 20.15 to 20.178 of the Civil Air Regulations. 

Aircraft Pilot Certificates 

The requirements for student, private, and commercial pilot certificates are 
given in Table A on pages 41-43. 

Exceptions for Commercial Pilot Certificate 

Certain of the procedures required for the original issuance of commercial 
pilot certificates are impracticable and unnecessary in the case of students 
completing certain combinations of courses given under the Civil Aeronautics 
Administration and by scheduled air carriers. Finding it necessary for the 
successful prosecution of the war effort to make a special regulation to meet this 
need, the following regulation was promulgated: 

Notwithstanding the provisions of Part 20 of the Civil Air Regulations to 
the contrary,.a commercial pilot certificate with proper ratings may be issued 
to pilots who submit evidence of having satisfactorily complied with the pro¬ 
visions concerning age, character, citizenship, education, physical condition, 
aeronautical knowledge, and aeronautical skill required for a commercial pilot 
certificate, and the provisions concerning aeronautical knowledge, aeronautical 
skill, and radio skill for an instrument rating, and have not less than 150 hours 
of flight time, including an instrument flight course, accumulated in courses 
under either the Civil Aeronautics Administration or a scheduled air carrier 
operator, and in addition shall successfully have accomplished a transition 
flight training course on multi-engine equipment of not less than 10 hours as 
follows: 

{a) a minimum of 10 take-offs and landings, of which at least three shall 
be at night; 

(6) take-offs and landings with various loads and various positions of 
center of gravity; 

(c) landings with various flap settings; 

(d) cross-wind landings; 

(e) simulated power failure; including single-engine approaches; 

(f) single-engine climbing and circling; 

(g) simulated instrument flight, including maneuvers on instruments, radio 
range flying; orientation; 

(h) power on, power off stalls; 

(i) demonstration of competence in cockpit procedure and ability to relieve 
the first pilot of routme responsibilities in connection with the handling of 
communications (Regulation Serial No. 242). 


TABLE A.—Requirements for Certification 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


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edge thereof. A graduate of the private pilot course of ' course of a certificated flying school shall be 














DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


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44 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


AIRMAN RATING RECORD 

Attached to each pilot certificate, except a student pilot certificate, is an 
Airman Rating Record which contains such items as type, class and horse¬ 
power ratings, special ratings, and flight area limitations. 

Pilot Aircraft Ratings 

1. Aircraft type rating. —For purposes of specifying the type of aircraft 
which the applicant is deemed competent to pilot and for convenience in exam¬ 
ining and rating the applicant with respect thereto, aircraft are typed as 
follows: 

{a) Airplane; 

{h) Autogiro; 

(c) Glider; 

{(i) Lighter-than-air aircraft. 

2. Airplane class rating. —For purposes of specifying the class of airplane 
which the applicant is deemed competent to pilot and for convenience in ex¬ 
amining and rating the applicant with respect thereto, airplanes are classed as 
follows; 

{a) Single-engine, land; 

(6) Single-engine, sea; 

(c) Multi-engine, land; 

{d) Multi-engine, sea; 

{e) Unconventional. 

3. Horsepower rating. —For purposes of specifying the horsepower of air¬ 
planes which the applicant is deemed competent to pilot and for convenience in 
examining and rating the applicant with respect thereto, pilots are rated as 
follows: 

(а) A certificated pilot is rated to fly airplanes of 80 or less horsepower if 
competence has been demonstrated in airplanes certificated for a maximum, 
except take-off, of 80 or less horsepower. 

(б) Except where subsection (a) is applicable, a certificated pilot is rated 
to fly airplanes of a range of horsepower extending from 50 percent less to 50 
percent greater than the total maximum, except take-off horsepower for which 
the airplanes in which competency was demonstrated were certificated. 

(c) A certificated pilot eligible for two or more horsepower range ratings 
shall be rated for one continuous range extending from the lowest to the highest 
horsepower for which he has qualified. 

4. Multiple airplane class and horsepower ratings. —The horsepower rat¬ 
ing shall apply to all airplane class ratings without the necessity of a separate 
flight test in each combination of such ratings. An applicant who has demon¬ 
strated competence in both single- and multi-engine airplanes and in both land 
and sea airplanes may be rated for all airplane classes except unconventional. 

Special Pilot Ratings 

There are two special pilot ratings as follows: 

(1) Flight Instructor rating. 

(2) Instrument rating. 

A notation of any special ratings which a pilot may hold is entered on the 
Airman Rating Record attached to his certificate. 

Note: For example, a pilot may be rated under (2) for single-engine land airplanes and under (3) (a) and (b) for 180 
or less horsepower by reason of flight tests in land planes of 50 horsepower and 120 norsepower. If he subsequently passes 
a rating flight test in a multi-engine seaplane of 450 horsepower, he will be rated under (2) for single- or wmZit-engine land 
or sea airplanes, and therefore, will be eligible to fly single- or multi-engine land or sea airplanes of 675 or less horsepower. 



DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


45 


TABLE B,—Special Rating Requirements 


Flight Instructor rating. To be eli¬ 
gible for an instructor rating, an 
applicant shall comply with the 
following requirements— 


Instrument rating. To be eligible for an instrument 
rating, an applicant shall comply with the follow¬ 
ing requirements— 


Age---- 

Aeronautical knowledge_ 


Same as for private certificate. 


Applicant shall have practical and 
theoretical knowledge of flight in¬ 
struction and shall accomplish a 
satisfactory written and practical 
examination thereon. 


Applicant shall be familiar with the use of such 
instruments and other navigational aids, both in 
aircraft and on the ground, as are deemed by the 
Administrator to be necessary for the navigation 
of aircraft by instruments, and with meteorology 
as applied to weather analysis and forecasting, 
and the applicant shall satisfactorily accomplish a 
written examination thereon. 


Aeronautical experience_ 


Applicant shall be possessed of a 
valid commercial or private pilot 
certificate. In the latter case, he 
must meet the experience re¬ 
quirements for the commercial 
certificate. 


Applicant shall be possessed of a valid private or 
commercial pilot certificate, and shall have logged 
at least 200 hours of solo flight time as prescribed 
for a commercial certificate, including at least 20 
hours of instrument instruction and practice under 
actual or simulated flight conditions approved by 
the Administrator: Provided, That not less than 
10 hours of such 20-hour requirement shall be in 
actual flight. 


Aeronautical skill 


Applicant shall satisfactorily ac¬ 
complish a practical flight test as 
to his ability to perform with pre¬ 
cision and teach properly such 
fundamental flight maneuvers as 
'are, in the opinion of the Admin¬ 
istrator, deemed necessary and 
appropriate for safe and sound 
instruction in the safe piloting of 
aircraft. 


Applicant shall satisfactorily accomplish, solely by 
instruments, a flight test with respect to the fol¬ 
lowing. 

(a) Straight level flight for a given period of 
time. 

(b) Moderately banked 180° and 360° turns in 
both directions. 

(c) Minimum glides and maximum climbs, and 
approaches to stalled attitudes of flight. 

(d) Climbing turns 

(e) Stalls, skids, slips and spirals, and banks in 
excess of 45°, and recovery from the same. 

(f) Such other maneuvers as the examining 
inspector deems necessary 

(g) A practical demonstration, while in flight or 
under simulated conditions, of estimating arrival 
time, taking into account speed, wind, and drift. 


Radio skill 


Applicant shall satisfactorily accomplish, solely by 
instruments, a flight test with respect to the fol¬ 
lowing: 

(a) Tuning radio. 

(b) Orientation. 

(c) Following radio range. 

(d) Locating cone of silence. 

(e) Letting-down-through on the range by the 
approved instrument approach procedure for 
the particular airport used in connection with 
the test. 

(f) Such other maneuvers as the inspector deems 
necessary. 


Military Instrument com 
petence. 


An applicant who holds a valid instrument rating 
issued by the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, or 
Coast Guard, and who holds a commercial pilot 
certificate may be issued an instrument rating 
valid only for piloting air carrier aircraft as a second 
pilot. 


EXAMINATIONS AND TESTS 

The examinations and tests prescribed in this chapter (both for pilot 
certificates and for the ratings issued with respect thereto) are conducted by 
an authorized officer or employee of the Administrator or by a properly quali¬ 
fied person designated for the purpose by the Admmistrator (20.60). 

Time and Place 

All examinations and tests will be held at such times and places as the 
Administrator or his representative may designate (20.64). 


















46 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Physical Examinations 

The appropriate physical examination prescribed in Part 29 of the Civil 
Air Regulations for the original issuance of a pilot certificate shall be accom¬ 
plished before any practical or theoretical test or other examination will be 
given, and shall be completed within the 12-month period immediately preced¬ 
ing the giving of such tests or examinations. 

Periodic physical examination. —(a) A certificated pilot shall not pilot an 
aircraft in flight unless within the preceding 12 calendar months he has met 
the physical requirements for original issuance of his certificate by passing an 
examination given by an authorized medical examiner of the Administrator. 
(6) In lieu of the physical examination conducted by an authorized medical 
examiner of the Administrator, a certificate from the appropriate officer in 
chai'ge of flying in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard certifying 
that the applicant is on pilot status solo in such service will be accepted as 
evidence of the physical fitness required for the issuance of any medical certi¬ 
ficate provided for in this Part: Provided, That' the physical qualifications 
required for such pilot status are not less than those required by these regula 
tions for the grade of pilot certificate applied for (20.73). 

Aledical certificate. —A medical certificate issued by an authorized medical 
examiner of the Administrator or other evidence satisfactory to the Adminis- 
^ trator that the pilot has met the appropriate physical requirements prescribed 
in Part 20 shall be carried by such pilot while piloting aircraft. Provided, 
however, that military personnel assigned to CAA War Training Service for 
pilot training shall be deemed to have met such requirements during period 
they are receiving student pilot training (20.730). 

Correcting lenses.—A. certificated pilot who, at his most recent periodic 
physical examination, met the physical qualifications for original issuance of 
his grade of certificate only by the use of correcting lenses shall not pilot aircraft 
in flight without wearing such correcting lenses, and a statement to that effect 
shall be endorsed by the medical examiner on his medical certificate (20.731). 

Pilot experience report. —At the time of each physical examination the pilot 
shall furnish to the medical examiner to be forwarded by him to the Adminis¬ 
trator a report setting forth the amount and type of his aeronautical experience 
and such other pertinent data as the Administrator may require, since his last 
preceding medical examination (20.74). 

Waiver oj physical standards. —An airman certificate may be issued to an 
applicant who does not meet the appropriate physical standards if in the opinion 
of the Administrator his aeronautical experience, ability and judgment com¬ 
pensate for his physical deficiency. A medical certificate issued under these 
conditions may be limited as to type of operation, type of aircraft or period of 
reexamination: Provided, That the provisions of this section shall not apply 
to applicants for the original issuance of an airline transport pilot certificate 
(29.2). 

Aircraft Used in Tests 

The applicant must furnish a certificated aircraft for any flight test involved. 
Each such aircraft, used in any test for a pilot certificate above the grade of 
student pilot, must be equipped with dual controls and must accommodate the 
applicant, the inspector, and parachutes for both. Aircraft having only one 
elevator and aileron control for two seats, or any arrangement whereby all 
flight and engine controls cannot be handled in a normal or conventional 
manner from either seat are not considered as having dual controls for the 
purpose of flight tests for pilot certificate or ratings. Each such aircraft must 
have adequate vision for the pilot and check pilot (20.61). 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 47 

Inspection 

The applicant for a pilot certificate or rating must offer full cooperation 
with respect to any inspection or examination which may be made of such 
applicant upon proper request by any authorized representative of the Admin¬ 
istrator prior or subsequent to the issuance of a pilot certificate or rating (20.62). 

Standard of Performance 

Every practical and theoretical examination and test must be accomplished 
to the satisfaction of the Administrator. The passing grade in the subject of 
examination and test is at least 70 percent. Each flight maneuver will be 
graded separately. Other examinations will each be graded as a whole (20.63). 

Reexamination for Pilot Certificates 

The following rules govern application for reexamination for pilot 
certificates: 

An applicant for a private or commercial pilot certificate who has failed to 
accomplish successfully any prescribed theoretical examination may apply for 
reexamination at any time after the expiration of 30 days from the date of such 
failure, or after he has received not less than 5 hours’ instruction on each sub¬ 
ject of the examination failed from a certificated ground instructor rated for 
such subject and presents a statement from such instructor showing the amount 
of instruction given and stating that he deems the applicant qualified to pass 
the required examination in such subject. 

An applicant for a private or commercial pilot certificate who has failed to 
accomplish successfully any prescribed practical examination or test may apply 
for reexamination only after he has logged at least 6 additional hours of flight 
time, including at least 3 hours of dual instruction time with a certificated in¬ 
structor and his instructor shall have certified in the applicant’s log book that 
he deems such applicant qualified for the certificate sought. Upon meeting 
these requirements, an applicant for reexamination shall be deemed to have met 
the 5-hour solo flight time requirement set forth under the heading ‘‘Aeronauti¬ 
cal experience” in the table on page 42 (20.650). 

Reexamination for Special Ratings 

An applicant for a special rating who has failed any prescribed theoretical 
examination for such rating may apply for reexamination at any time after 
the expiration of 30 days from the date of such failure, or after he has received 
not less than 5 hours’ instruction on each subject of the examination failed 
from a certificated flight instructor, a certificated ground instructor rated for 
the subject, or a person qualified to instruct in the theory of instrument flight. 
The applicant shall verify such instruction by presenting a statement from such 
instructor or pilot showing the amount of instruction given and stating that 
he deems the applicant qualified to pass the required examination in such 
subjects. 

An applicant who has failed the flight test for a special rating may apply 
for reexamination only after he has logged at least 6 additional hours of flight 
instruction and his instructor shall have certified in the applicant’s log book 
that he deems such applicant qualified to pass the required flight test. Such 
instruction shall be given by a certificated flight instructor if for a flight 
instructor rating and by a pilot holding the appropriate aircraft rating and 
instrument rating if for an instrmnent rating (20.651). 


48 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


REVOCATION 

No person whose pilot certificate has been revoked, may apply for or 
be issued a pilot certificate of any grade or rating for a period of one year after 
the revocation, except as the order of revocation may otherwise provide (20.35). 

DURATION OF PILOT CERTIFICATES 

A pilot certificate shall be of 60 days’ duration and, unless the holder 
is otherwise notified by the Administrator within such period, it shall continue 
in effect thereafter until otherwise specified by the Board unless suspended 
or revoked, or until the holder has applied for and has been issued a new certif¬ 
icate of a different grade to pilot the same type of aircraft (20.31). 

A pilot certificate currently effective on April 1, 1942, shall continue in 
effect for a period of 60 days subsequent to the date of its issuance and, unless 
the holder is otherwise notified by the Administrator within such period, shall 
continue in effect indefinitely thereafter, unless suspended or revoked or until 
the holder has applied for and has been issued a new certificate of a different 
grade to pilot the same type of aircraft: Provided, That no limited commercial 
certificate shall remain effective after May 1, 1942: Provided, jvrther, That a 
pilot certificate under suspension on April 1, 1942, shall, after reinstatement, 
continue in effect in accordance with the provisions of this section applicable 
to currently effective pilot certificates (20.310). 

Review Questions 

1. May a person who does not possess a pilot certificate pilot an aircraft on 

a civil airway? 

2. May a person who does not possess a pilot certificate pilot an aircraft in 

interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce if he stays off civil airways? 

3. When may a person operate the dual controls of an ah-craft without 

holding a valid pilot certificate? 

4. Name the grades of pilot certificates for aircraft other than glider or 

lighter than air. 

5. What are the minimum age requirements for student, private, and com¬ 

mercial pilots? 

6. What specific requirements must a student pilot meet before his first solo 

flight, in addition to the requirements for the student pilot certificate? 

7. How many hours of solo flight time are required of an applicant for a 

commercial pilot certificate? 

8. How many hours of solo flight time must trainees in the CAA War Train¬ 

ing Service program have before they are eligible for commercial pilot 
certificates? 

9. What is an aiiTuan rating record? 

10. Name the classes of aircraft by type. 

11. Name the engine classes of airplanes. 

12. Name the special pilot ratings. 

13. How often is a physical examination required after the original issuance 

of a certificate? 

14. What provision regarding medical certification has been made for military 

personnel assigned to CAA War Training Service for pilot training? 

15. If an applicant for a private or commercial certificate fails any prescribed 

theoretical examination, what should he do? 

16. Is it possible for a person whose pilot certificate has been revoked to 

obtain another pilot certificate? 

17. What is the duration of a pilot certificate? 


Chapter VL—AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION 


NECESSITY FOR AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATES 

The two kinds of aircraft certificates are registration certificate and air¬ 
worthiness certificate. 

All aircraft operated in the United States must be registered (have a 
registration certificate) except aircraft of the national defense forces which are 
exempted from this requirement provided they are identified in a manner 
satisfactory to the Administrator, and aircraft of foreign registry which may be 
granted special authorization by the Administrator to make flights in the navi¬ 
gable air space of the United States. 

Except in the cases noted above, it is unlawful for any person to operate or 
navigate any aircraft eligible for registration if such aircraft is not registered 
by its owner. 

It is unlawful for any person to operate in air commerce any civil aircraft 
for which there is not currently in effect an airworthiness certificate, or in 
violation of the terms of any such certificate. 

‘‘Air commerce,’’ as previously defined, means interstate, overseas, or 
foreign air commerce or the transportation of mail by aircraft or any operation 
or navigation of aircraft within the limits of any civil airway or any operation 
or navigation of aircraft which directly affects, or which may endanger safety 
in, interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce (Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, 
title V, sec. 501 (a), and title VI, sec. 610 (a) (1). 

However, the Civil Aeronautics Board has declared that any operation of 
aircraft in the air space overlying the United States either directly or indirectly 
affects or may endanger safety in, interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce 
(amendment 135). 

Consequently, no flight, other than of a foreign aircraft whose navigation 
in the United States has been authorized according to law, shall be made or 
authorized to be made in the United States in civil aircraft unless there is out¬ 
standing for such aircraft a valid airworthiness certificate (60.31). 

AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE 
Application 

Application for an airworthiness certificate may be made by the regis¬ 
tered owner of any aircraft registered as an aircraft of the United States upon 
the applicable form prescribed and furnished by the Administrator (01.10). 

Issuance 

Prior to the issuance of an airworthiness certificate, the subject aircraft is 
inspected by a duly authorized representative of the Administrator to deter¬ 
mine whether it is in condition for safe operation and complies with the air¬ 
worthiness requirements specified in the Civil Air Regulations: Provided, 
That an airworthiness certificate may be issued for an aircraft for which no 
such certificate has previously been issued and which has been nianufactured 
under a type certificate or under a type and a production certificate if the 
applicant for such certificate, upon request, presents to a duly authorized 

49 



50 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


representative of the Administrator a Statement of Conformity properly exe¬ 
cuted by the manufacturer of the aircraft on a form prescribed and furnished 
by the Administrator, and if the aircraft satisfactorily passes an inspection 
made to determine whether such aircraft is in condition for safe operation: 
Provided Jurther, That an aircraft manufactured under a type certificate only 
must undergo, and an aircraft manufactured under a type and a production 
certificate may be required to undergo, an inspection to determine whether 
such aircraft conforms to the type certificate under which it is manufactured 
( 01 . 11 ). 

Duration 

An airworthiness certificate is of 60 days’ duration and, unless the holder 
is otherwise notified by the Administrator within such period, continues in 
effect indefinitely thereafter, unless suspended, revoked, or canceled, except that 
it immediately expires: 

(1) at the end of a specifically designated period after the date of issuance 
of the certificate or after the date of the last endorsement thereof, whichever 
is later, if the holder of such certificate fails to secure within such period an 
examination or inspection by an authorized inspector for the Administrator or 

(2) at any time an authorized inspector of the Administrator shall refuse 
to endorse such certificate after examination or inspection. 

Note.— A statement of duration will appear on all airworthiness certificates. The above reference to a “specifically 
designated period” means the period which will be designated on each airworthiness certificate. Under ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances an airworthiness certificate will have to be endorsed each year (01.13). 

Cancellation 

An airworthiness certificate may be canceled upon the written request 
of the registered owner of the aircraft (01.21). 

Transferability 

An airworthiness certificate and the attached currently effective Aircraft 
Operation Record, upon transfer of ownership, shall remain with the aircraft 
for which they were issued (01.14). 

REGISTRATION CERTIFICATE 
Application 

Application for the registration of an aircraft must be made upon the appli¬ 
cable form prescribed and furnished by the Administrator. This application 
must be accompanied by proper documentary evidence of the applicant’s 
ownership of such aircraft and satisfactory proof that the applicant is a citizen 
of the United States. 

Duration 

The registration and certificate issued pm^suant thereto shall remain in 
effect indefinitely unless suspended or revoked. However, such registration 
and'certificate may be canceled by the Administrator at any time within 90 
days after issuance and thereafter they shall immediately expire upon the date: 
(a) The aircraft is registered under the laws of any foreign country, (b) the 
registration of the aircraft is canceled at the written request of the owner 
(c) the aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped, or {d) the ownersliip of the 
aircraft is transferred, unless on the date the registered owner transfers owner¬ 
ship of such aircraft he endorses the registration certificate in the manner 
pi-ovided thereon and the purchaser makes application for the registration of 
the aircraft in his name (501.4). 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


51 


Invalidation 

Any registration of an aircraft by the Administrator becomes null and void 
if at the time of registration: (a) The aircraft was registered under the laws of 
any foreign country; or {b) the person registered as owner was not the true 
and lawful owner of the airciaft; or (c) the person registered as owner was 
not a citizen of the United States as defined in section 1 (13) of the Civil Aero¬ 
nautics Act of 1938, as amended, or the interest of such person in the air¬ 
craft was created by any transaction not entered into in good faith but for the 
purpose of avoiding, with or without knowledge of the registered owner, the 
provision of the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, as amended, prohibiting the 
registration of an aircraft in the name of a person not a citizen of the United 
States (501.6). 

Transferability 

A registration certificate is not transferable except that upon the transfer 
of ownership of an aircraft registered as a civil aircraft of the United States, 
the registration and certificate issued pursuant thereto may be transferred to 
the purchaser upon the following conditions: 

(1) the pm’chaser is a citizen of the United States; 

(2) on the date the registered owner transfers ownership of such aircraft, 
he shall endorse the registration certificate in the manner provided thereon 
and deliver such certificate to the pm-chaser; and 

(3) on the date of transfer, an application for registration of the aircraft 
in the name of the purchaser, together with all documents required for pre¬ 
viously registered aircraft, is mailed to the Administrator (501.3). 

AIRCRAFT OPERATION RECORD 

An aircraft for which an airworthiness certificate is currently in effect, 
referred to as a certificated aircraft, shall not be operated unless there is at¬ 
tached to such airworthiness certificate' the appropriate Aircraft Operation 
Record prescribed and issued by the Administrator, nor shall such aircraft be 
operated other than in accordance with the limitations for safe operations 
prescribed and set forth by the Administrator in such record. An aircraft for 
which an airworthiness or experimental certificate is in effect on the effective 
date of this section may be operated without an Aircraft Operation Record 
until expiration, cancellation, or revocation of any such certificate (01.12). 

GENERAL CERTIFICATE RULES 

Display 

A registration certificate and an airworthiness certificate must be carried 
at all times in the aircraft for which such certificates have been issued and must 
be presented upon the request of any duly authorized representative for the 
Administrator or Board, or any State or municipal official charged with enforc¬ 
ing local laws or regulations involving Federal compliance. 

Surrender 

* 

Upon cancellation, suspension, revocation, expiration, or invalidation of a 
registration certificate or an aircraft airworthiness certificate, the owner of the 
aircraft must, upon request, surrender such certificates to any authorized 
representative of the Administrator. 


52 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


IDENTIFICATION MARKS 
Necessity for Identification Marks 

No aircraft (except a foreign aircraft provided for in section 6 of the Air 
Commerce Act of 1926, as amended) shall be operated within the United States 
unless it displays an identification mark assigned thereto by the Administra¬ 
tor: Provided, That aircraft of the national defense forces of the United States 
shall be identified by the agency having jurisdiction over them in a manner 
satisfactory to the Board. 

Assigned Identification Marks 

The identification marks assigned by the Administrator are as follows: 

NC. —certificated aircraft which has fully complied with the minimum 
airworthiness requirements specified in the Civil Air Regulations, displays the 
roman capital letters NC followed by the registration number. 

NR. —A certificated aircraft which has not demonstrated compliance with 
the airworthiness requirements specified in the Civil Air Regulations, but which 
in the opinion of the Administrator, is in condition for safe operation for 
particular activities, must display the roman capital letters NR followed by the 
registration number. 

NX. —A certificated aircraft which has not demonstrated compliance with 
the airworthiness requirements specified in the Civil Air Regulations, but 
which, in the opinion of the Administrator, is in condition for safe operation 
for experimental purposes, must display the roman capital letters NX followed 
by the registration number. 

An uncertificated aircraft must display the registration number only. 

A certificated aircraft manufactured in the United States for delivery to 
a foreign purchaser may display such marks or insignia as the appropriate 
foreign government designates. Such aircraft may only be operated for the 
purpose of test flights and demonstration for a limited time in the immediate 
vicinity of the manufacturer’s airport or for the sole purpose of delivery to the 
foreign purchaser (60.32). 

Location and Display of Identification Marks 

The identification mark on conventional aircraft must be displayed, in the 
case of a biplane, on the lower surface of the lower left wing and on the upper 
surface of the upper right wing, and in the case of a monoplane, on the lower 
surface of the left wing and the upper surface of the right wing: Provided, 
That if the length of the lower left wing of a biplane is less than one-half the 
length of the upper left wing, the identification mark must be displayed on the 
lower surface of the upper left wing as far to the left as possible. The top of 
the letters and figures must be toward the leading edge. The height must be 
at least four-fifths of the mean chord but need not exceed 30 inches. The 
mark must also be located on both sides of the vertical tail surface of all con¬ 
ventional airplanes, of a size as large as a 2-inch margin will permit. On gliders 
the letters and figures must be displayed in the same manner and place pre¬ 
scribed for conventional airplanes except the minimum height must be 15 
inches. On aircraft other than conventional airplanes or gliders or on con¬ 
ventional aircraft where the design or dimensions of the wing prevent the dis¬ 
play of the identification mark in the manner prescribed above, the identifica¬ 
tion mark must be displayed in such manner as may be prescribed by the 
Administrator (60.320). 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


53 


Lettering of Identification Marks 

The width of the letters and figures (except the figure 1) must be at least 
two-thirds of their height. The width of each stroke must be at least one-sixth 
of the height of the letters and figures, which must be of uniform size. The 
space between such letters and figures must be not less than one-sixth of the 
height. Such letters and figures must be painted on the aircraft in a solid 
color and on a clearly contrasting background. Such identification mark must 
be kept clean and clearly visible. No other design, mark, or symbol which 
might modify or confuse the assigned mark may be placed on the aircraft 
except with the approval of a duly authorized inspector of the Administrator 
(60.321). 

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF CERTIFICATED AIRCRAFT 

Permission To Operate Aircraft 

Neither the owner nor anyone having custody of an aircraft shall permit 
any person to operate such aircraft unless the owner or the one having custody 
of the aircraft has ascertained that such person is the holder of an appro¬ 
priate currently effective pilot certificate by actual examination of the cer¬ 
tificate and by requiring such person to identify himself as the person referred 
to in the certificate. 

Recent Experience Requirements 

Solo Flight. —A certificated pilot who within the preceding 6 calendar 
‘months has not made and logged at least 5 take-offs and 5 landings to a full 
stop in an aircraft of the type and class proposed to be flown shall pass a 
flight check in such aircraft before otherwise piloting civil aircraft of that type 
and class. Such check flight shall be given by a certificated pilot of private 
grade or higher qualified by having made within the preceding 3 calendar 
months at least 5 take-offs and 5 landings to a full stop in an aircraft of the 
same type and class as that of the aircraft proposed to be flown. 

Passenger Flight. —A certificated pilot shall not pilot any civil aircraft 
carrying any other person (other than a certificated pilot of at least private 
grade or higher, rated for the aircraft operated and possessed of the recent 
experience required by this section or any member of the crew thereof) unless, 
within the preceding 3 calendar months, he shall have made and logged at 
least 5 take-offs and 5 landings to a full stop in an aircraft of the same type 
and class as that of the aircraft in which any such person is carried: Provided, 
That a pilot while flying in scheduled air transportation shall be governed as 
to recent experience for passenger flight by the provisions of Part 61. 

Instructional Flight. —No flight instructor shall give flying instruction in 
civil aircraft to any other person unless within the preceding 12 calendar months 
he shall either 

{a) while possessed of a valid instructor’s rating have given at least 10 
horns of flight instruction in aircraft for which he held at’ the time of giving 
such instruction a valid aircraft rating, or 

{h) have passed such practical flight test as the Administrator deems 
necessary and appropriate to demonstrate continued proficiency for giving 
flight instruction. 

Night Flight. —No person shall take off or land a civil aircraft carrying 
passengers during the period from one hour after sunset to one hoin before 
sunrise, unless he has made and logged at least 5 take-offs and 5 landings to a 
full stop during such period within the preceding 3 calendar months. 

Instrument Flight. —A certificated pilot who within the preceding 6 calendar 
months has not flown and logged at least 2 hoiu*s of flight time solely by refer- 


54 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


ence to instruments under either actual or properly simulated instrument flight 
conditions, shall not pilot an airciaft under such conditions until he has flown 
and logged at least 2 hours of such flight time accompanied by a certificated 
pilot of at least private grade holding an appropriate type, class, and horsepower 
rating for the aircraft, and authorized to operate aircraft under instrument 
conditions. 

Aircraft and Engine Log Books 

The registered owner of a certificated aircraft is responsible for the main¬ 
tenance and, upon request, the presentation to a duly authorized representative 
of the Administrator or Board, of a log book for the aircraft and a log book for 
each engine installed therein. Such log books must be current,- accurate, 
legible, and permanent records. The aircraft log book must contain a complete 
operating history of the aircraft which must include, but is not limited to, flight 
time of the aircraft, reports of periodic or other inspections, minor repairs, and 
minor alterations of the aircraft structm'e and propellers. Each engine log 
book must contain a complete operating histoiy of the aircraft engine to which 
it pertains, which must include, but is not limited to, the running time of the 
engine in flight, reports of periodic or other inspections, mmor repairs, and 
minor alterations of the aircraft engine (01.27). 

Log hook entries may be leplaced in the case of scheduled air carrier 
aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers, by a suitable system of recording the 
information required. 

Maintenance of Certificated Aircraft 

A certificated aircraft must not be operated unless maintained in condition 
for safe operation (01.24). 

Periodic Inspection 

A certificated aircraft must not be operated unless, within the 100 hours 
of flight time last preceding such operation, such aircraft was given a periodic 
inspection. Such inspection must be made by a person to whom there has 
been issued a currently effective and appropriate mechanic certificate, and must 
be made in accordance with the Periodic Aircraft Inspection Report form 
prescribed and furnished by the Administrator. The results of such inspection 
must be entered in the aircraft log book and on the Periodic Aircraft Inspection 
Report form over the signature and certificate number of the person making the 
same (01.25). 

Other Inspections 

In all cases, except inspections following repairs or alterations to certificated 
aircraft, the registered owner is responsible for having such aircraft given a 
periodic inspection by a person to whom there has been issued a currently 
effective and appropriate mechanic certificate, within a reasonable time prior 
to presentation for inspection by a duly authorized representative of the 
Administrator. In'cases of inspections following repairs or alterations of air¬ 
craft, such representative may require such inspection of the aircraft as he 
deems necessary, by a person to whom there has been issued a currently effective 
and appropriate mechanic certificate (01.26). 

CONTACT AND INSTRUMENT FLIGHT EQUIPMENT 

Landplanes 

Airplanes which are certificated as non-air carrier must have at least 
the following equipment: 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


55 


Visual-contact day flying (within 100 miles of a fixed base) 

(a) One airspeed indicator. 

(b) One altimeter. 

(c) A tachometer for each engine. 

(d) An oil-pressure gage when an oil-pressure system is employed. 

(e) A water thermometer for each water-cooled engine. 

(J) An oil thermometer for each air-cooled engine. 

(g) A manifold-pressure gage, or equivalent, for each altitude engine, 

{h) A fuel quantity gage. 

(i) Certificated safety belts for all passengers and members of the crew. 

(j) A portable fire extinguisher, which extinguisher shall be of an ap¬ 
proved type which must have a minimum capacity, if carbon tetrachloride, of 
one quart, or, if carbon dioxide, of 2 pounds, or, if other, of equivalent effective¬ 
ness; except that any extinguisher of not less than half the above capacity may 
be used in an airplane equipped with an engine whose maximum rating is 40 
horsepower or less. 

(k) Landing gear position indicator for retractable main landing gear. 

(Z) A device for measuring or indicating the amount of oil in the tanks. 

(m) A first-aid kit. 

(n) A log book for the airplane and one for each engine. 

(o) Rigging information for airplanes with wire-braced wings, either in 
the form of a sketch or listed data, which must include sufficient information 
to permit proper rigging (04.510). 

Visual-contact day flying (unlimited distance) 

Airplanes of this category must have the equipment specified in the section 
above and, in addition, there must be installed: 

(a) A magnetic compass (04.511). 

Visual-contact night flying 

Airplanes of this category shall have the equipment specified above and, 
in addition, there shall be installed: 

(a) A set of certificated standard forward position lights in combination 
with a certificated tail light. 

(b) Two electric landing lights if the aircraft is operated for hire: 
Provided, however, That only one such ^landing light shall be required for any 
airplane certificated for a weight of less than 1,500 pounds. 

(c) Certificated landing flares as follows, if the aircraft is operated for 
hire beyond an area within a circle with a radius of 3 miles drawn from the 
center of the airport of take-off: 

Airplanes of 3,500 pounds maximum authorized weight or less—five Class 
3 flares or three Class 2 flares. 

Airplanes of between 3,500 pounds and 5,000 pounds maximum authorized 
weight^—four Class 2 flares. 

Airplanes of 5,000 pounds maximum authorized weight or more—two 
Class 1 flares or three Class 2 flares and one Class 1 flare. 

If desired, airplanes of less than 5,000 pounds maximum authorized weight 
may carry the flare equipment specified for heavier airplanes. 

{d) A storage battery suitable as a source of energy supply for such lights 

and radio as are installed. 

{e) Radio equipment, if the aircraft is operated in a control zone, as 
follows: A radio* range and weather broadcast receiver operating within the 
frequency range of 200 to 400 kilocycles. Under normal atmospheric condi- 


56 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


tions this receiver must be capable of receiving with a range of 100 miles intelli¬ 
gence emanated from a radio range or weather broadcast station the equivalent 
of an SBRA installation. 

(J) A set of spare fuses (04.512). 

Instrument day flying 

Airplanes of this category shall have the equipment specified for visual- 
contact day flying (unlimited distance) and, in addition, there shall be installed: 

(a) Radio equipment as specified in visual-contact night flying, whether 
the aircraft is operated for hire or not, and, in addition, a radio transmitter 
operated on 3105 kilocycles with a power output sufficient to establish com¬ 
munication at a distance of at least 100 miles under normal atmospheric condi¬ 
tions. Additional frequencies may be employed subject to approval of the 
Federal Communications Commission. 

(b) A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator. 

(c) A bank indicator. (Instruments (b) and (c) may be combined in one 
instrument if desired.) 

(d) A sensitive altimeter which shall be adjustable for changes in barometric 
pressure and compensated for changes in temperature. 

(e) A clock with a sweep-second hand. 

(/) A storage battery suitable as a source of energy supply for the radio 
equipment installed. 

(g) A generator. 

(h) A set of spare fuses. 

{i) A rate-of-climb indicator (04.513). 

Instrument night flying 

Airplanes of this category shall have the equipment specified for visual- 
contact night flying and instrument day flying combined. The storage battery 
shall be suitable as a sonrce of energy supply for both the radio equipment and 
the lights (04.514). 

Sjeaplanes and Amphibians 

The equipment requirements for non-air carrier seaplanes and amphibians 
shall be the same as specified for landplanes except that seaplanes and amphib¬ 
ians shall not be certificated for operation over water out of sight of land unless 
they have at least a magnetic compass, and except that all certificated seaplanes 
and amphibians shall also have an approved life preserver or flotation device 
for each person for which there is a seat, and except that all seaplanes and 
amphibians certificated for night operation shall also have a white anchor light 
(04.515). 

Review Questions 

1. What are the two kinds of aircraft certificates? 

2. May an aircraft be legally flown in the United States without a registration 

certificate? 

3. May an aircraft be legally flown in the United States without an airworthi¬ 

ness certificate? When and under what conditions? 

4. Under what conditions will a registration certificate be issued? 

5. In case of transfer of ownerslnp of an aircraft, what happens to the regis¬ 

tration certificate? 

6. Under what conditions is an aircraft eligible for an airworthiness certificate? 

7. What is the usual endorsement period for an airworthiness certificate? 

8. In case of transfer of ownership of an aircraft, what happens to the airworth¬ 

iness certificate? 


57 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 

9. Wliat is a ‘‘certificated aircraft’’? 

10. What is an aircraft operation record? What information does it contain? 

11. Why should a certificated pilot read the aircraft operation record before 

flying a strange aircraft? 

12. Name the three identification marks used for identification of certificated 

aircraft and give the meaning of each. 

13. If an aircraft displays a registration number only, what does that signify? 

14. Before an owner may allow anyone to operate his aircraft, what procedure 

must he follow? 

15. When is a flight check given to a certificated pilot desiring to make a solo 

flight? 

16. What is the purpose of aircraft and engine log books? 

17. When is a periodic inspection required and by whom may it be made? 

18. Who is responsible for seeing that an aircraft receives a periodic inspection 

at such times as is required? 

19. Check an aircraft to which you have access and note whether it has all the 

equipment required for a certificated non-air carrier landplane making 
visual-contact day flights (unlimited distance), and make note of any 
additional equipment. 

20. What equipment in addition to that for landplanes making visual-contact 

day flights (unlimited distance) is required for night flying? 

21. What equipment is required for a certificated landplane making an instru¬ 

ment flight during the day? During the night? 

22. When are landing flares required in an aircraft making contact flight? 

23. When is radio equipment required in an aircraft making contact flight? 




Chapter VII.—EMERGENCY AND MISCELLANEOUS 

REGULATIONS 


EMERGENCY REGULATIONS 

In addition to the rules covered in the preceding chapters of this book, 
pilots will be governed by certain emergency regulations which have been in 
effect since February 15, 1942. All current additions to or changes in these 
emergency regulations appear in the ‘^Weekly Notice to Airmen.’’ 

Each pilot should familiarize himself with the following general regulations 
pertaining to flights during the emergency period. 

Designated Landing Areas 

Except upon the prior approval of the Administrator, or his authorized 
representative, no person shall 

(1) take-off any aircraft from a place other than a designated landing 
area, or 

(2) land any aircraft at any place other than a designated landing area 
except where such landing is caused by unforeseeable circumstances beyond 
the control of such person, in which event the pilot of the aircraft shall make 
a report to the Administrator, or his designee, at the landing area to which 
he was cleared as soon as possible, and in no case more than 24 hours after 
such landing, setting forth fully the reasons therefor. 

Take-off Procedure 

No person shall take off any aircraft from a designated landing area unless 
immediately prior to such take-off 

(1) He shall have submitted to the Administrator, or a person designated 
by him, at such landing area sufhcient information to identify adequately the 
pilot, occupants, and the aircraft, and to describe the route, duration, nature, 
and purpose of proposed flight: Provided, That a pilot may conduct an entire 
day of local operation of a particular aircraft on one clearance if he keeps an 
accurate record of all persons carried in this aircraft throughout the day and 
files this record with the Registrar and Clearance Officer when filing his arrival 
notice at the end of the day’s flight operation. 

(2) He shall have secured a clearance for take-off issued in accordance 
with this section: Provided, No clearance shall be granted unless— 

{a) the applicant for clearance demonstrates to the Administrator, or 
person designated by him, that the applicant is the holder of a 
currently effective pilot certificate and presents the identification 
card required; 

(6) the route proposed to be flown by the applicant permits compliance 
with the section concerning vital defense areas and zones of 
military operation; 

(c) the aircraft proposed to be flown is equipped with functioning two- 

way radio if the flight is other than a local flight; and 

(d) the issuance of such clearance is consistant with instructions issued 

by the Civil Aeronautics Administration: Provided, That with 
special permission of the Administrator, or person designated by 


58 



DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


59 


him for this purpose, a flight may be cleared to operate in day¬ 
light in accordance with daylight contact flight rules beyond the 
local flying area of the landing area from which take-off is made 
notwithstanding that the aircraft flown is not equipped with 
functioning two-way radio. No clearance under this section shall 
be deemed to authorize the violation of any regulation. 

(3) If the flight be to another landing area and requires operation into or 
within a vital defense area or a zone of military oj^erations, he shall have trans¬ 
mitted to such landing area, through the person granting clearance, a message 
by telephone or telegraph identifying the aircraft to be flown and stating the 
estimated time of arrival. Provided, That this requirement need not be met if 
a flight plan has been filed with Airway Traffic Control for the flight. 

(4) He shall have familiarized himself with all available current flight 
information relating to the area proposed to be traversed on his flight. 

Landing Procedure 

Immediately after landing an aircraft upon a designated landing area, the 
pilot shall submit to the Administrator, or his designee at such landing area, a 
copy of his clearance and such other information as may be required: 
Provided, That if a series of local flights is being made in accordance with the 
outlined provisions, such information need be submitted only after the final 
landing at the end of the day’s flight operation. 

After a flight from another designated landing area which involved opera¬ 
tion into or within a vital defense area or zone of military operation, the pilot 
shall transmit to the landing area from which he was cleared for the flight, 
through the Administrator’s designee at the landing area on which the landing 
was made, a message by telephone or telegraph identifying the aircraft flown 
and stating the time of arrival: Provided, That this requirement need not be 
met if a flight plan has been filed for the flight with Airway Traffic Control. 

Operation of Aircraft 

No person shall operate an aircraft 

(1) otherwise than in accordance with the description of the flight sub¬ 
mitted to the Administrator or his designee at the landing area from which take¬ 
off was made, except in case of emergency in which event the pilot of the air¬ 
craft shall make a report to the Administrator, or his designee, at the landing 
area of departure or arrival as soon as possible after such deviation, describing 
the deviation and setting forth fully the reasons; 

(2) into or within a vital defense area or zone of military operations 
otherwise than in accordance with the conditions specified for such operation. 

No person shall leave an aircraft unattended under circumstances which 
would permit its operation by an unauthorized person without making the 
aircraft incapable of operation in a manner consistent with any instructions 
issued by the Administrator for this purpose. 

Basing of Aircraft 

No person shall base an aircraft at any place within the United States 
other than a designated landing area wdthout first obtaining specific permission 
from the Administrator issued upon such conditions as he deems necessary. 

(1) Immediately upon basing aircraft as above, the owner shall submit 
to the Administrator or his designee at such landing area sufficient information 
to identify the aircraft, its owner, and the last previous base. 

(2) If aircraft is to be absent from its base at any time for more than 72 
hours, the owner shall submit to the Administrator’s designee at such base 


/ 


60 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

such information as may be necessary to permit him to locate the aircraft 
promptly in case of necessity. 

(3) Prior to changing the base, the owner of an aircraft shall notify the 
Administrator, or his designee, at his present base, of his intention, stating the 
name and location of the landing area to which the aircraft is to be transferred. 

Discontinuance of Scheduled Broadcasts 

All scheduled broadcasts within the continental limits of the United States 
have been discontinued; however notices to airmen concerning radio com¬ 
munication facilities will continue to be broadcast immediately upon receipt 
and one time only. Simultaneously, Aircraft Landing Code, which is a code 
system for the communication of airway landing weather by radio to pilots in 
flight, will become effective. 

Dissemination of Meteorological Information 

The following procedure shall be observed by pilots in utilizing radio in 
aircraft for transmitting flight plans or requesting weather information: 

(1) Flight plans may be transmitted by radio when necessary for proper 
operation, except that all flight plans so transmitted shall be in standard instru¬ 
ment form. In submitting an instrument flight plan it will be assumed that the 
pilot is qualified to conduct the flight under instrument conditions unless he 
indicates otherwise. Pilot shall not use the terms ‘^on top,’’ ‘‘CFR,” ‘‘CTC/ 
Altitude” and ‘‘Altitude/CFR” when transmitting flight plans by radio. The 
transmission of flight plans containing the above terms should be accomplished 
in person or by interphone for information of the airway traffic control center 
concerned. Change of altitude, position report, etc., can be reported in accord¬ 
ance with past practices except that no reference shall be made to weather 
conditions or the above terms. 

(2) Since the pilot will obtain all weather information necessary from the 
Weather Bureau or Civil Aeronautics Administration communication station 
where no Weather Bureau is located prior to departure, only limited W’^eather 
information will be necessary while in flight. The pilot while in flight niay 
request weather information from airport traffic control towers of Civil Aero¬ 
nautics Administration communication stations. If any element of the coded 
weather report cannot be understood by the pilot, he may request that element 
by stating the item he desires, such as ‘‘Say again visibility,” etc. On receipt of 
the coded weather information from ground stations, the pilot shall not repeat 
back the coded information but merely acknowledge receipt of the message. 

(3) A pilot is permitted to obtain only two coded weather reports, one local, 
one distant, when contacting any one radio station along the route of flight. 
Pilots should limit their requests for weather reports and obtain only th^ose 
essential for the safe completion of the flight. Since weather transmissions 
are made only on low power (radius 15 miles), it is necessary for the pilot desiring 
a report for a distant location to radio ahead in sufficient time to permit com¬ 
munications personnel to have the desired report coded when pilot reports 
over or within range of the low power transmitter since only the local report 
will be coded and available for immediate transmission. 

(4) The pilot in no case shall transmit weather information over his radio in 
plain language except in extreme emergency conditions where safety of life or 
property is endangered. 

(5) Altirneters shall continue to be set to the setting of the nearest station 
reporting official altimeter settings along the route of flight. Current altimeter 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 61 

setting should be utilized. The pilot prior to departure should obtain and 
record altimeter settings for reference while in flight. In addition, altimeter 
settings can be obtained while in flight in code as indicated in item 3. 

(6) Ground stations are required to transmit weather information in plain 
language to the pilot whenever extreme emergency conditions occur where safety 
of life or property is endangered. 

(7) Immediately on completion of the flight, the pilot shall turn in the air¬ 
craft landing code forms to the ‘‘flight clearance officer,” or military or company 
operations office as applicable to the pilot concerned, or when not possible 
destroy by burning. The contents of code received by the pilot shall be kept 
strictly confidential. Instructions contained on code Form WB7 have been 
modified by the Weather Bureau to conform with the above. 

(8) In instances where change of altitude is required by alternate instruc¬ 
tion received from an airway traffic control center or a change in approved flight 
plan is necessary to continue flight in accordance with contact flight rules, 
pilot shall make such change in accordance with past practices. However, 
reason for change shall not be reported as this would reveal information as to 
weather conditions. 

Blackout of Air Navigation Aids 

As a defense measure ail radio aids, rotating beacons, and other lighting 
facilities in the entire country, but primarily on both coasts, are subject to 
momentary or prolonged periods of complete shutdown without advance 
notice, both day and night. Exercise extreme caution. 

Obstructed Airports 

A number of fields, primarily along the west coast, which have not been 
certified as Designated Landing Areas have had their landing areas and run¬ 
ways obstructed by various methods. In addition, a number of the Designated 
Landing Areas in the same areas may be obstructed likewise at any time, often 
without prior warning, but especially during the hours of darkness. These 
obstructions are so placed that none of the fields is available for landing. 

Prohibition of Flight over Army and Navy Installations 

Fliers are warned to avoid flight over any Army or Navy field, fort, camp, 
or other installation, or over any ammunition depot, powder or ordnance plant, 
etc. Planes approaching these areas may be fired upon without notice. 
Typical warnings received by telegraph follow: 

“. . . any planes flying over Portsmouth, N. H., will be considered 
enemy planes and will be fired upon.’’ 

“. . . all aircraft to avoid the Parker Dam, Ariz., area. If aircraft 
approach this area, they will be fired upon.” 

“. . . all planes flying at low altitude over Fort Ord, Calif., will be 
fired upon.” 

“. . . all aircraft approaching field (Morrison Field, West Palm 
Beach, Fla.), contact control tower 20 minutes out on 3105, 4495, 

4595 kilocycles. Any airplane failing to do so will be considered 
hostile.” 

Pilots should exercise a high degree of discretion in the planning and 
execution of cross-country flights. 


62 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS 
Passenger Baggage Restrictions 

No pilot shall operate aircraft, except in scheduled air transportation, 
carrying passengers’ baggage or cargo unless 

(1) he or his agent examines every item of such baggage or cargo and loads 
same, with no intervening possession by any other person; 

(2) he places all cameras of passengers in closed compartments or space 
in aircraft completely inaccessible to them during flight. Pilots shall permit 
search of their aircraft upon demand by any representative of the Army, Navy, 
Civil Aeronautics Administration, Civil Aeronautics Board or by civil police 
(60.349). 

Towing by Aircraft 

The towing of aircraft by other aircraft or the towing of any device or 
object by aircraft is prohibited, unless permission has been granted by the 
Administrator: Provided, however, such restriction shall not apply to military 
aircraft previously authorized by the appropriate governmental agency to 
make such flights in the public interest (60.346). 

Dropping Objects or Things 

No object or thing, other than fine sand, fine (No. 7 or smaller) lead shot, 
fuel, or water (all unconfined), shall be dropped or released from an aircraft 
in flight by any person on board the aircraft, unless permission has been granted 
by the Administrator: Provided, however, such restriction shall not apply to 
military aircraft previously authorized by the appropriate governmental agency 
to make such flights in the public interest. The pilot or person in charge of 
the aircraft shall be responsible for the observance of this rule by all persons 
in the aircraft (60.347). 

Aircraft on Water 

Seaplanes on the water shall navigate according to the laws and regulations 
of the United States governing the navigation and operation of watercraft, 
except as otherwise provided in these regulations (60.92). 

Transportation of Explosives 

No person shall operate a civil aircraft in flight carrying explosives. 
However, explosives do not include: 

(1) the aircraft’s signaling or safety equipment (such as a Very pistol 

or landing flares) or 

(2) small arms ammunition in the possession of 

(а) a member of the flight crew, 

(б) a member of the armed forces of the United States or any of its 

allies, 

(c) an official, employee or officer of the United States, a State, 
Territory or Possession, or political subdivision thereof, wdio is 
lawfully carrying arms on official duty. 

This rule shall uot apply if the Administrator finds a deviation necessary 
for the successful prosecution of the war and has issued a certificate of waiver 
therefor. 


DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


63 


Review Questions 

1. Wliat procedure (emergency) must a pilot follow before he may take-off? 

2. Why is this procedure necessary? 

3. Upon completion of a flight is it necessary for a pilot to file an arrival 

notice with the clearance officer? 

4. What should a pilot do if he finds that his passenger has a camera? 

5. When is it permissible for one aircraft to tow another aircraft? 

6. What is the regulation regarding dropping of objects or things from an 

aircraft? 

7. May a CAA War Training Service trainee operate an aircraft in flight 

carrying a rifle? 


Chapter VIII.—ENFORCEMENT 


This book has been compiled on the assumption that pilots will cooperate 
fully in observance of the regulations because of their relationship to safe 
flying. The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 provides for the enforcement of 
these regulations and prescribes penalties for violations. 

REPORT OF VIOLATIONS 

The Civil Aeronautics Board investigates all accidents and violations of 
the civil air regulations and reports its findings. As a result of these findings, 
the Board imposes penalties on the violators. The official actions or orders 
of the Board describing the various penalties are published in the Civil 
Aeronautics Journal. A few accident reports illustrating typical violations 
and giving the subsequent penalties are quoted in the following: 

Flying Below 500 Feet 

‘‘_received minor injuries 

and his passenger,_, was seri¬ 

ously injured in an accident which occurred 

on June 3, 1942, about _ p. m., 

approximately _ miles* east of 

_, Illinois._held 

a private pilot certificate with a rating to 
fly single-engine landplanes of from 0-80 
hp. He had accumulated a total of ap¬ 
proximately 42 hours of flight time, of which about 25 hours were solo. The 

aircraft, a Taylorcraft BL-65, NC_, owned by _._, was 

extensively damaged. 

‘‘At-p. m.,-took off with his passenger in a rented 

airplane from the Municipal Airport,_, Illinois, and flew to the 

vicinity of-, Illinois. After circling_at an altitude 

of about 1,000 feet, the pilot throttled his engine and descended to 500 feet. 
After making another circle under power he again throttled the engine. The 
pilot stated that when power was applied the second time the engine sputtered 
and he selected a field for a precautionary landing. During the approach, the 
landing gear struck and broke two wires of an electric power line about 20 
feet above the ground. The airplane crashed in a freshly plowed field approxi¬ 
mately 125 feet beyond the power line, bounced, and came to rest 25 feet ahead 
on the bottom of the fuselage. 

“Evidence revealed that the pilot was cleared from the airport at_ 

to_and return. He flew several miles beyond_to the 

vicinity of-and was circling over the farm territory where his 

family and friends lived. -stated that while he was flying at 

500 feet, he throttled down to get to a lower altitude. 

“There was no evidence of failure of the aircraft structure, and there was 
sufficient fuel in the tanks. The cause of the engine’s sputtering was not 
determined. It was started and found to be in operative condition after the 
accident. 

'^Probable cause: Failure of the pilot to avoid power line during a pre¬ 
cautionary landing. Contributing factor: Action of pilot in flying at a^danger- 
ously low altitude. 

64 




























DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


65 


^^Order No. _ Suspended for 6 months private pilot certificate 

No.-held by_for piloting an aircraft at an altitude of 

less than 500 feet above the ground and other violations of the Civil Air 
Regulations.” 

Low Acrobatics 



‘‘Pilot_received minor inju¬ 
ries and his passenger,_was 

seriously injured in an accident which 

occurred about _ miles east of 

_, Pennsylvania, on October 

9, 1942, at approximately_p. m. 

_held a private pilot certificate 

with a Class 2S land rating and had flown 

around 260 hours. The aircraft, a Piper J4A, NC___, owned by the 

pilot and_, was extensively damaged. 

“_obtained clearance for a local pleasure flight and, accom¬ 
panied by_, took off from the_airport at approxi¬ 
mately _p. m. The plane was next observed flying low over_ 

and in the vicinity of the passenger’s home, where_executed a 

wing-over. During recovery from this maneuver, the left wing struck a tree 
about 50 feet above the ground. The wing tip sheared off and remained in 
the tree, while the plane swerved to the left and struck the ground on the left 
wheel, causing that side of the landing gear to collapse. The airplane then 
ground-looped to the left and went over on its back. 

“_,_stated that he had indulged in several glasses of beer while 

waiting for_, which may account for his trying to show off his 

flying ability to his friend. In attempting a wing-over at a very low altitude 
over a wooded area, he misjudged his altitude and struck a tree. 

“The weather was suitable for flying and, according to the pilot, had no 
bearing on the accident. 

Probable cause: Failure to complete an acrobatic maneuver executed at 
a dangerously low altitude over a wooded area. Contributing jactor: Reckless 
flying. 

Order No. _Revoked private pilot certificate held by_ 

for certain violations of the Civil Air Regulations.” 


Carrying Passenger 

“Pilot_ and his passenger, 

_, were seriously injured in an 

accident which occurred approximately 

_miles southeast of_, Utah, 

on July 8, 1942, at about _ a. m. 

_held a private pilot certificate 

and was rated to fly single-engine land- 
planes of 80 hp or less. He had accumu¬ 
lated approximately 100 hours of flying time. -- (the passenger) 

was not certificated as an airman. The aircraft, a Piper J3L-65, NC-, 

owned by_and_, received major damage. 

_obtained clearance for a local pleasure flight from the- 

airport,_, Utah, and took off with his passenger at-a. m. 

He flew to the vicinity of his home, where he circled over an orchard to attract 
his father’s attention. During this circling the aircraft was gradually losing 
altitude and when it had descended to an altitude of about 200 feet, the pilot 
apparently lost control. Before he could regain control, the aircraft struck 











































66 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

the tops of the fruit trees, clipping them for a distance of approximately 80 
feet, and then struck the ground. It came to a stop about 30 feet from the 
point of first impact with the ground. 

“The accident occurred approximately 30 miles from the point of take¬ 
off and beyond the boundaries of the area described in the flight clearance. 

Probable cause: Failure of the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft 
while flying recklessly at a low altitude. 


^^OrderNo. _Suspended for 6 months private pilot certificate No_ 

held by_for piloting an aircraft carrying a passenger with the dual 


controls fully functioning when neither he nor the passenger was qualified for 
such operation and other violations of the Civil Air Regulations.^’ 

JtESPONSIBILITY FOR INDIRECT VIOLATIONS . 

From the April 15, 1943, Civil Aeronautics Journal is quoted the 
following information on responsibility for indirect violations: 

“CAA Safety Regulation field men have been instructed to report not 
only those charged with direct violations of the Civil Air Regulations, but 
those who, through active participation, carelessness, or neglect of duty or 
safety responsibilities, are indirectly responsible for violations or resulting 
accidents. 

“Emphasis has always been placed upon fully reporting the violation 
committed and upon exact definition of the responsibility of the violator. 
Instruction No. 137, sent out in March over the signature of the Director of 
Safety Regulation, expresses the conviction that many violations and accidents 
can be prevented through the proper cooperation of aircraft owners, operators, 
instructors, airport managers, and other aviation personnel. 

“The official instruction stated, ‘The relation of every person involved in 
a violation should be clearly set forth in the violation report and a recommenda¬ 
tion submitted for action against them for theu’ part even though there is no 
section of the regulations covering the particular phase of their involvement.’ ” 

MOST FREQUENT VIOLATIONS 

There appeared in the May 15, 1943, Civil Aeronautical Journal an 
article which contained in part the following facts on violations: 

“The most frequent violations of the Civil Air Regulations include the 
following: 

CAR 60.3503—Flying below 500 feet. 

CAR 60.701 (b)—Low acrobatics, less than 1,500 feet. 

CAR 60.71—Acrobatics while carrying passengers for hire. 

CAR 60.72—Acrobatics without parachutes. 

CAR 20.720—Student carrying other than certificated instructor. 

• “These air traffic rules are fundamental to safety in flight and are based 
upon complete analyses and studies of past and present flying experience. 
The minimum safe altitudes specified for flight are intended to prohibit un¬ 
necessary low acrobatics and low flying. 

“Low flying is admittedly difficult to control, and persistent effort is 
required to curtail it. The immediate problem is to prevent pilots from be¬ 
coming victims of their own folly. The fact that one out of every five serious 
or fatal accidents resulted from low flying in 1942 should be conclusive proof 
that the altitude requirements of the Civil Air Regulations are to be strictly 
complied with and should not be intentionally violated.” 



DIGEST OF CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTS 


67 


ACCIDENTS 

Report and Notification of Accidents 

A written report must be made without delay to the Civil Aeronautics 
Board at its nearest branch office of every accident involving a civil aircraft 
which occurs within the United States and every accident involving a certifi' 
cated aircraft of the United States, without regard to where it occurs. Such 
report must be made upon an accident report form fmmished by the Board. 
In addition, the Board, or the Administrator of Civil Aeronautics, must 
be notified immediately in person or by cable, telegraph, telephone, or 
radio, of the occmTence of any air carrier accident, or accident resulting in 
serious or fatal injury to any person, or accident known or believed to have 
resulted from a structural failure in flight. This requirement of immediate 
notification applies to every such accident involving civil aircraft which occm*s 
within the United States and every such accident involving air carrier 
aircraft without regard to where it occurs. The pilot in command of a nonair 
carrier aircraft involved in the accident must make the report and notifica¬ 
tion of the accident as required by this section unless he is incapacitated, 
in which event the operator of the aircraft must make such report and noti¬ 
fication. The operator of an air carrier aircraft involved in an accident must 
make such report and notification. 

Removal, Release, and Preservation of Aircraft 

Removal .—No aircraft or part thereof, involved in an air carrier accident 
or in an accident resulting in serious or fatal injury to any person, or accident 
known or believed to have resulted from structural failure in flight shall be 
moved or distm*bed, except 

(1) when necessary for giving assistance to persons injured or trapped in 
the wreckage; 

(2) when necessary in the interest of public safety; 

(3) when specific permission shall have been granted by an authorized 
representative of the Civil Aeronautics Board or of the Administrator of Civil 
Aeronautics; or 

(4) when prompt movement of the aircraft is necessary to protect it from 
further serious damage and it is impossible to secm’e immediate communication 
with any person authorized in (3) to direct the-removal. 

Any movement of the aircraft or any part thereof shall be so accomplished 
as to entail the minimum possible disturbance of the material concerned. 
Prior to such movement, a record of the original position and condition of the 
wreckage (as complete and accurate as possible under the circumstances) shall 
be made unless the danger to public safety is such as to permit of no delay 
whatever, or unless an authorized representative of the Civil Aeronautics 
Board has directed otherwise. 

The requirements of this section shall be applicable with respect to all 
accidents as described above which occur within the United States and with 
respect to all air carrier accidents without regard to where they occur, 

Release .—No aircraft or part thereof, involved in an air carrier accident 
or in an accident resulting in serious or fatal injuiy to any person, or accident 
known or believed to have resulted from structural failure in flight, shall be 
released for repair, salvage, disposal, or any other purpose except upon specific 
permission granted by an authorized representative of the Civil Aci'onautics 

Board. 


68 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Preservation .—An aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller or appliance, or any 
part or parts thereof, involved in an accident, shall be preserved and removed 
to such place or places as directed by the Civil Aeronautics Board or any 
authorized representative thereof for purposes of safekeeping, inspection, test¬ 
ing, or any other purpose consistent with the powers and duties granted the 
Civil Aeronautics Board under section 702 (a) of the Civil Aeronautics Act of 
1938, as amended. However, the wreckage of an aircraft involved in a type 
of accident other than the categories described above need not be preserved 
unless specifically directed by the Civil Aeronautics Board or an authorized 
representative thereof. 

Review Questions ^ 

1. How is compliance with the Civil Air Regulations enforced? 

2. What means does the Civil Aeronautics Board take to inform the aviation 

public of its action regarding violations? 

3. If a pilot is indirectly responsible for an accident, can any action be taken 

against him? 

4. What Civil Air Regulations are most frequently violated? 

5. Who makes the report of an accident to the Board? 

6. Do minor accidents involving certificated aircraft have to be reported to 

the Board? 


GLOSSARY 


Air commerce means interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce, or the transportation 
of mail by aircraft, or any operation or navigation of aircraft within the limits of any civil 
airway, or any operation or navigation of aircraft which directly affects, or which may endan- * 
ger safety in, interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce. 

Air speed means the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. 

Alternate airport means an airport specified in a flight plan to which the pilot plans to 
proceed in case he is not able to effect a landing at his intended destination. 

Approved flight plan is a plan of flight, containing information which has been approved 
solely with respect to known air traffic conditions by an airway traffic control center of the 
Administrator. 

Ceiling is the distance from the cloud base to the ground. 

Ceiling unlimited —A ceiling is considered unlimited when clouds cover less than one-half 
of the sky or when the base of the clouds is more than 9,750 feet above the point of observation. 

Certificated aircraft means any aircraft for which an airworthiness certificate has been 
issued, and is currently in effect. 

Citizen of the United States means (a) an individual who is a citizen of the United States 
or of one of its possessions, or (h) a partnership of which each member is such an individual, or 
(c) a corporation or association created or organized under the laws of the United States or of 
any State, Territory, or possession of the United States, of which the president and two-thirds 
or more of the board of directors and other managing officers thereof are such individuals and 
in which at least 75 percent of the voting interest is owned or controlled by persons who are 
citizens of the United States or of one of its possessions (Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, 
title I, sec. 1 (13). 

Civil aircraft means any aircraft other than a public aircraft (Civil Aeronautics Act of 
1938, title I, sec. 1 (14). 

Civil airway means a path through the navigable air space of the United States, identified 
by an area on the surface of the earth, designated or approved by the Administrator as suit¬ 
able for interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce. 

Contact flight is flight of aircraft in which the attitude of the aircraft and its flight path 
can at all times be controlled by visual reference to the ground or water (60.130). 

A control zone is the air space above that area on the surface of the earth within 3 miles 
of the center of a control airport, and within one-half mile of a line extending from the center 
of such airport to the radio range station established for the purpose of directing air traffic to 
such airport. 

Cruising altitude is the flight altitude, measured in feet above sea level, proposed for that 
part of a flight from point to point during which a constant altitude will be maintained. 

A designated landing area is a landing area designated by the Administrator for the 
landing and take-off of aircraft during the period of national emergency. 

Ground speed means the horizontal component of the velocity of an aircraft relative to 
the ground. 

Instrument flight is flight of aircraft in which visual reference is not continuously avail¬ 
able and the attitude of the aircraft and its flight path can be controlled in part or in whole by 
reference to instruments only (60.131). 

Interstate, Overseas, and Foreign air commerce, respectively, mean the carriage by 
aircraft of persons or property for compensation or hire, or the carriage of mail by aircraft, 
or the operation or navigation of aircraft in the conduct or furtherance of a business or 
vocation, in commerce between, respectively, (a) a place in any State of the United States 
or the District of Columbia and a place in any other State of the United States or the District 
of Columbia; or between places in the same State of the United States through the air space 
over any place outside thereof; or between places in the same Territory or possession (except 
the Philippine Islands) of the United States, or the District of Columbia; (5) a place in any 
State of the United States or the District of Columbia and any place in a Territory or posses¬ 
sion of the United States; or between a place in a Territory or possession of the United States 
and a place in any other Territory or possession of the United States; and (c) a place in the 
United States and any place outside thereof, whether such commerce moves wholly by air¬ 
craft or partly by aircraft and partly by other forms of transportation. (Civil Aeronautics 
Act of 1938, 'title I, sec. 1 (20). 

A local flying area is an area adjacent to a designated landing area, including any 
channel leading thereto, which has been set aside by the Administrator, or his authorized 
representative, for local flying, and a “local flight’’ is a flight wholly within such area. 

Navigable air space means the air space above the minimum altitudes of flight prescribed 
by regulations issued under the Civil Aeronautics Act. 

Over-the-top flight is flight of aircraft made above an overcast, usually a cloud formation. 

69 


70 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


Production certificate means a document issued by the Administrator to a manufacturer 
of aircraft or certain components thereof (see CAR parts 13, 14, 15, and 16), for which a type 
certificate has been granted, certifying that said manufacturer has complied with the require¬ 
ments of the Civil Air Regulations for the production of aircraft or components thereof in 
quantities of an exact similarity of type, structure, materials, assembly, and workmanship 
with the specifications, descriptions, and drawings forming the basis for said type certificate. 

Public aircraft means an aircraft used exclusively in the service of any government or of 
any political subdivision thereof, including the government of any State, Territory, or pos¬ 
session of the United States, or the District of Columbia, but not including any government- 
owned aircraft engaged in carrying persons or property for commercial purposes (Civil 
Aeronautics Act of 1938, title I, sec. 1 (30). 

A radio fix is a geographical location designated by the Administrator on a civil airway 
above which the position of an aircraft in flight can be accurately determined by means of 
radio only (such as a cone of silence marker, Z-type marker, fan-type marker, or intersection 
of radio range on-course signals). 

Type certificate means a document issued b}^ the Administrator to a manufacturer or 
designer of aircraft or certain components thereof (see CAR parts 13, 14, 15, and 16), cer¬ 
tifying that the type of aircraft or component, as represented by authenticated data in the 
form of specifications, descriptions, and drawings on file in the office of the Administrator, 
has been found to be suitable as a basis for the manufacture of airworthy aircraft or com¬ 
ponents constructed in accordance with such data. 

United States means the several States, the District of Columbia, and the several 
Territories and possessions of the United States, including the territorial waters and the 
overlying air space thereof. (Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, title I, sec. 1 (31). 

Visibility is the greatest distance toward the horizon at which conspicuous objects can 
be seen and identified. 

A vital defense area is an area set aside by the Secretary of War, or the Administrator 
upon the request or approval of the Secretary of War, within which the operation of aircraft 
is prohibited or is authorized only subject to prescribed conditions. 

A zone of military operations is an area designated as such by the Secretary of War, or 
the Administrator upon the request or with the approval of the Secretary of War. 


I 




































































































































































































































